B 1 Clasificación penitenciaria

Ancient Greek terminology on the subject of fortifications and garrisons is expansive. For example, the term ἄκρα, akra (citadel), often located on the acropolis of a polis, could be a key component of a garrison, and is found in both literary52 _{and epigraphical}53 _evidence.

52_{Xen. Cyr. 8.6.1; Arr. Anab. 1.17.3, 3.16.9.}

The term χωρίον, chorion, which generally means place, could refer to a fortress, as could περιπόλιον, peripolion.54 All of these words could refer also to concepts that were not strictly limited to garrisons or military pursuits, and as such are not the focus of this investigation. Specific martial terminology is well represented in Greek literature, although the wealth of examples presents many difficulties when focusing on garrisons and garrison commanders. The terms φυλακή, phulake, and φύλαξ, phulax,are often translated in modern

scholarship as “garrison” or “garrison forces”, creating a false equivalence with the more specific designation of φρουρά, phroura (garrison) or φρουρός, phrouros (garrison soldier).55 Such conflation is also present in some ancient testimony,56 and the phrase τὴν φυλακὴν τῶν φρουρίων, phulake of the phrouria, or “protection of the garrisons”, is relatively well-attested in inscriptions.57 However, phulake and phroura were distinct designations, as were phulakes

and phrouroi. There is only one case in epigraphy where phulakes are found under the command of a phrourarchos orin a phrourion,58 and there are no other instances in the papyrological or epigraphical record where phulakes are used interchangeably with

phrouroi.59

Although they are often associated with the general concept of a garrison, phulakes could

54_{Xen. Cyr. 5.13; 7.4.1.}

55_{For example, see Polyb., 2.7.12: “...μηδέποτεδεῖντοὺςεὖφρονοῦνταςἰσχυροτέρανεἰσάγεσθαιφυλακὴν} ἄλλωςτεκαὶβαρβάρων, ἐπὶτοσοῦτονἔκρινονποιήσασθαιμνήμην.”; Paton 1922 translates the passage as: “...no people, if wise, should ever admit a garrison (emphasis mine) stronger than their own forces, especially if composed by barbarians.” Shuckburgh 1889: “...it is never wise to introduce a foreign garrison (emphasis mine), especially of barbarians, which is too strong to be controlled”.

56_{Suda, s.v. Φρουρά; s.v. Φρουρεῖ.}

57_{IG II}2_{, 1285; 1288; 1299; 1303; 3467; SEG 3.91; 25.155; 41.73; 41.78; 41.86; 41.92; 43.25; 43.40; 49.138;}

49.153; I. Priene 494 = Syll.3 _{363 = SEG 37.882.} 58_Syll.3 _599.

59_{Due to its close adherence to local terminology and practice when compared to literary or historical works,}

guard anything inside or outside the urban area of a polis; they could be assigned to walls or specific areas of the fortifications, such as the gates, treasury, stores; they could keep the general peace, oversee prisoners, serve as bodyguards, or perform other military functions.60 While many garrisons contained phulakes, the use of the latter does not strictly imply the presence of the former, especially when mercenaries or foreign allies were involved. This dissertation only addresses phulakes when they are associated with phrourarchoi, phrouria, or phrourai.

Ἁρμοστής, harmostes, is another term which is often associated with garrisons. Although

harmostes could be used on a limited basis as a generic term for a royal overseer,61 it primarily designated a Spartan governor over a foreign polis, who may have commanded troops and sometimes functioned in practice as a garrison commander.62 Due to this broad range of meanings, the post is discussed here only in its relation to phrouria,phrourai, and

phrouroi.

The office of στρατηγός, strategos (general), is another potential source of confusion. The strategia in Classical Athens is well understood, as is the political influence wielded by

strategoi in the assembly.63 _{As the powers and influence of these strategoi were broad, some}

scholars conflate their role with the phrourarchia.64Strategoi are known to have commanded garrisons, although such postings were largely restricted to Hellenistic Attica and a scattering

60_Syll.3 _{569; 633; IG XII, Suppl. 644; IC III, iv 9; Manganaro 1963, #18; I. Priene 19; 23; 108; Robert and}

Robert 1976 153–235; SEG 29.1136; Russell 1999, 11; 33.

61_{Suda, s.v. Ἁρμοσταί.}

62_{Parke 1930, 49–50; Hodkinson 1993, 152–161.} 63_{Hamel 1998, 12–14.}

of other locations.65 Hellenistic strategoi were generally governors over larger regions, with powers that extended far beyond the administration and maintenance of garrisons. In many of these cases the office of the strategia wasseparate from, if not outright superior to, the

phrourarchia.66

By at least 306 in Asia Minor, the strategia became closely aligned with the conception of a Persian satrap,67 although the exact extent of the responsibilities of strategoi here remains controversial.68 However, within smaller communities by the Hellenistic period, the office of the strategos was increasingly disassociated from military roles, and was instead devoted to civil affairs. As a result, the strategia oftenexercised powers which overlapped with archons and other civil officials, rather than military ones.69

Further precision is called for. This investigation focuses on the specific terminology surrounding the office of the phrourarchia70and the phrourai, phrouria, and phrouroi who supported it.Theseterms are related to the verb φρουρέω (phroureo), to watch, and retained their association with observation within a military setting.71Phroura generally referred to a

65_{SEG 31.120 = SEG 49.153 = I. Rhamnous II 49; SEG 43.25; SEG 43.40; SEG 24.154 = SEG 40.135 = SEG}

44.59 = I. Rhamnous II 3; SEG 41.92 = I. Rhamnous II 38; SEG 15.113 = SEG 19.82 = SEG 25.158 = I. Rhamnous II 43; SEG 40.129 = SEG 43.31 = I. Rhamnous II 14; SEG 40.141 = I. Rhamnous II 47; SEG 41.86 =

I. Rhamnous II 10. For non-Athenian examples see IG2 _{123, 1287; Lindos II 151; Hdn. 3.6.10; App. Hann. 7.43;}

Diod. Sic. 20.103.2; Polyaenus, Strat. 6.5. See Appendix 4 for a full list.

66_{FD III 4:37; SEG 19.678 = SEG 37.984 & 987; I. Priene 4; Robert and Robert 1976, 153–235 = Sokolowski}

1980, 103–106; SEG 26.1306, 30.1376; SEG 29.1613 = Landau 1966, 54–70 = Fischer 1979, 131–138; Philae

15, 20; Thèbes à Syène 242, 243, 302, 318, 320, 322; P. Diosk.1, 6; P. Dura 20; P. Gen. 3.132; P.Hib. 2.233; P. Tebt. 1.6; SB 1 4512; UPZ 1.106, 1.107.

67_{Bengston 1952, 96–118; cf. Lund 1992, 140–146 who argues that strategoi under Lysimachus were not}

regional governors and were instead officers concerned with temporary security measures.

68_{Billows 1990, 273–277.}

69_{Shatzman 1991, 59; Dmitriev 2005, 232 n. 74.}

70_{The verb φρουραρχέω is extremely rare in literature of the period, with the only unambiguous reference in}

Plut. Dio. 11.

garrison, its structures, or even a watch in an abstract sense. In contrast, a phrourion was a physical fortress and was generally a self-contained entity. A phrourion could be located in the very heart of a polis on the akra, on the borderlands of its chora, or anywhere in- between.72 The word had unquestioned military connotations, and the term is sometimes viewed as a synonym with teichos and its derivatives.73

The men who served in a garrison were largely referred to as phrouroi, although phroura

and the more generic designation of phulakes could be used on a limited basis.74 These were used figuratively as well, and could reference a prison, bodyguards, or a general state of protection. Many Greek writers in the Roman Empire could use these terms anachronistically or imprecisely,75 and this investigation treats such instances largely as a literary, not historical, phenomenon.

One of the most important magistracies associated with phroura, phrouria, and phrouroi

was the office of the phrourarchia, or garrison commander, which was held by men called

phrourarchoi (singular phrourarchos). This study will show that, unlike more generic terms such as archon, hegemon or strategos,76phrourarchia designated a unique office with specific authority. It was a position tasked with projecting power and maintaining control over recalcitrant populations, primarily through physical and political domination. Protection

72_{See Appendix 4 for a listing of all instances of phrourarchoi, phrourai, phrouria, and phrouroi.} 73_{Nielsen 2002, 50–54.}

74_{See Appendix 5 for a full list of all sources.}

75_{RE (1941) 773–81, s.v. “Phrourarchos”; Reger 2004, 148.}

76_{Although what follows is not a definitive or edited list, for a sense of scale, the TLG contains 14,710 instances}

of hegemon, 23,457instances of archon, and only 216 instances of phrourarchos (along with all of their derivatives). These numbers are similar in other corpora: PHI lists 860 instances of hegemon, 2,500 of archon, and 116 of phrourarchos; papyri.info contains 991 instances of hegemon, 2,579 for archon, and 31 for

phrourarchos; and at the time of this printing the SEG contains 303 instances of hegemon, 1,819 of archon, and 56 for phrourarchos.

against external threats was an important function of the phrourarchia. Even in the autonomous poleis of Hellenistic Asia Minor phrourarchoi were mostly concerned with protecting the limited hegemony of a polis over its immediate chora and subordinate neighbors.77