Bailoterapia En El Ecuador

Rational choice institutionalism expects actors to cooperate when there are clear mutual benefits for doing so, specifically by developing and/or utilizing institutions that increase the transfer of information, add credibility to commitments and decrease transaction costs. The member states of the European Union regularly interact with one another when new policies are developed, but energy policies have remained largely under the control of national governments because national preferences have a limited area of common ground. This paper examined natural gas and oil because of the vulnerability of national markets and the political link that these resources have in international relations. The future development of the Internal Energy Market in the European Union is limited by the five different

mechanisms related to natural gas and oil identified in the previous two sections: production and consumption levels, source diversity, risk diversity, national priorities, and the influence of non-European Union countries. These mechanisms restrict necessary conditions for cooperation among the member states during the bargaining and decision making process, as well as provide clear evidence of limitations to a European Energy Policy.

As suggested by Le Coq and Paltseva, a sectoral approach might be the best solution for harmonizing the fragmented energy markets of European Union member states. Current European Union legislation and decisions reflects such an approach and measures for unbundling and coordinated regulation are underway (EUR-Lex, 2010). The European Union has traditionally used economic and market related tools to deepen European

30

from economic unification, but much work remains to be done at the European Union level. Collective measures were possible for controlling green house gas emissions because every member state experiences the effects of climate change. Current conditions are not optimal for supranational cooperation in energy policies beyond climate change, as demonstrated by the examples of natural gas and oil, because of the diversity of national energy portfolios and interests. This policy area is especially difficult to develop as market mechanisms are only a part of the energy policy picture and national preferences are divided among the member states. Aspects of foreign policy must be included in order to address the politically sensitive nature of energy security, further complicating negotiations. Within an institutional context, possible outcomes are limited by economic and political factors, and the procedures and norms of the decision making process. The informal practice of consensus building and unanimity, even when qualified majority voting can be used in policy areas, means that preferences must converge in some way before a new agenda or policy is politically viable at the supranational level. Although the energy landscape is economically and politically complex, the European Union is still a forum for policy discussion and member states can still be rallied around common interests – such as the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions by 20 percent by 2020.

31 Tables

32 Taken from Le Coq and Paltseva, 2009.

33 Bibliography

Arınç, İbrahim S. (2007) ‗The EU-Russian Gas Interdependence and Turkey‘, Insight Turkey, 9:4, 23-36

Aspinwall, Mark D. and Schneider, Gerald (2000) ‗Same menu, separate tables: The institutionalist turn in political science and the study of European integration‘, European Journal of Political Research, 38, 1-36

Baran, Zeyno (2007) ‗EU Energy Security: Time to End Russian Leverage‘, The Washington Quarterly, 30:4, 131-144

Börzel, Tanja A. (2005) ‗Mind the gap! European integration between level and scope‘,

Journal of European Public Policy, 12:2 217-236

BP Statistical Review of World Energy 2008 (2009) bp.com/statisticalreview

Bulmer, Simon J. (1993) ‗The Governance of the European Union: A New Institutionalist Approach‘, Journal of Public Policy, 13:4, 351-380

Bulmer, Simon and Padgett, Stephen (2004) ‗Policy Transfer in the European Union: An Institutionalist Perspective‘, British Journal of Political Science, 35, 103-126

Commission of the European Communities (2006) Green Paper – A European Strategy for Sustainable, Competitive and Secure Energy, Brussels: European Commission

Commission of the European Communities (2007) Communication from the Commission to the European Council and the European Parliament – An Energy Policy for Europe, Brussels: European Commission

Commission of the European Communities (2009a) Commission Staff Working Document – The January 2009 Gas Disruption to the EU: An Assessment, Brussels: European

Commission

Commission of the European Communities (2009b) EU Energy in Figures 2009, Brussels: Directorate-General of Energy and Transport (DG-TREN)

Dowding, Keith (2000) ‗Institutionalist Research on the European Union: A Critical Review‘, European Politics, 1, 125-144

34

EUR-Lex (2010) ‗Directory of Community legislation in force: 12 Energy‘, 1 February 2010, <http://eur-lex.europa.eu/en/legis/latest/chap12.htm>

Farrell, Henry and Héritier, Adrienne (2005) 'A rationalist-institutionalist explanation of endogenous regional integration', Journal of European Public Policy, 12: 2, 273-290 Fondation Robert Schuman (2007) ‗Annex 4: List of the articles coming under ordinary

legislative procedure‘, Understanding the Treaty of Lisbon < http://www.robert- schuman.org/doc/divers/lisbonne/en/annexe4.pdf>

Hall, Peter A. and Taylor, Rosemary C. R. (1996) ‗Political science and the Three New Institutionalisms‘, Political Studies, 44, 936–57

Jachtenfuchs, Markus (2002) ‗Deepening and Widening Integration Theory‘, Journal of European Public Policy, 9:4, 650-657

Jacobsson, Staffan and Lauber, Volkmar (2006) ‗The politics and policy of energy system transformation—explaining the German diffusion of renewable energy technology‘,

Energy Policy, 34, 256-276

Jervis, Robert (1999) ‗Realism, Neoliberalism and Cooperation: Understanding the Debate‘,

International Security, 24:1, 42-63

Jupille, Joseph and Caporaso, James A. (1999) ‗Institutionalism and the European Union: Beyond Comparative Politics and International Relations‘, Annual Review of Political Science, 2, 429-444

Keohane, Robert O. and Martin, Lisa L. (1995) ‗The Promise of Institutionalist Theory‘,

International Security, 20:1, 39-51

Kerremans, Bart (1996) ‗Do Institutions Make a Difference? Non-Institutionalism, Neo- Institutionalism, and the Logic of Common Decision-Making in the European Union‘,

Governance: An International Journal of Policy and Administration, 9:2, 217-240 Lavenex, Sandra (2004) 'EU external governance in 'wider Europe'', Journal of European

Public Policy, 11: 4, 680-700

Le Coq, Chloé and Paltseva, Elena (2009) ‗Measuring the Security of External Energy Supply in the European Union‘, Energy Policy, 37:11, 4474-4481

Mavrakis, Dimitrios, Thomaidis, Fotios and Ntroukas, Ioannis (2006) ‗An assessment of the natural gas supply potential of the south energy corridor from the Caspian Region to the EU‘, Energy Policy, 34, 1671-1680

35

Meritet, Sophie (2007) ‗French perspectives in the emerging European Union energy policy‘,

Energy Policy, 35, 4767-4771

Noël, Pierre (2008) ‗Beyond Dependence: How to deal with Russian Gas‘, European Council on Foreign Relations: Policy Brief, Cambridge, United Kingdom

North, Douglass (1990) Institutions, Institutional Change and Economic Performance, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom

Paillard, Christophe-Alexandre (2007) ‗Go East, Young European! The Black Sea is Now Yours: A French View on Energy Strategies in the Black Sea Region‘, Southeast European and Black Sea Studies, 7:2, 237-243

Pointvogl, Andreas (2009) ‗Perceptions, realities, concession – What is driving the integration of European energy policies‘, Energy Policy, 37, 5704-5715

Pollack, Mark A. (2005) ‗Theorizing the European Union: International Organization, Domestic Polity or Experiment in New Governance?‘ Annual Review of Political Science, 8, 357-398

Pollack, Mark A. (2008) ‗The New Institutionalism and European Integration‘, in eds. Weiner and Diez, European Integration Theory, Oxford University Press Inc., New York, Chapter 7

Pop, Valentina (2010) ‗Russian Baltic Sea pipeline gets final approval‘, euobserver.com, February 12, 2010, <http://euobserver.com/19/29464>

Publications Office of the European Union (2008) ‗Consolidated versions of the Treaty on European Union and the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union‘, Official Journal of the European Union, 51

Rapid Press Release (2005) ‗Questions & Answers on Emissions Trading and National Allocation Plans‘, MEMO/05/84, updated 20 June 2005, Brussels

Reymond, Mathias (2007) ‗European key issues concerning natural gas: Dependence and vulnerability‘, Energy Policy, 35, 4169-4176

Röller, Lars-Hendrik, Delgado, Juan and Friederiszick, Hans W. (2007) Energy: Choices for Europe, Bruegel Blueprint Series, Brussels, Belgium

36

Strandberg, Urban (2010) ‗Energy supply and security policy – In need of transnational institutions?‘ Energy Policy, 37, 1227-1228

Triantaphyllou, Dimitrios (2007) ‗Energy Security and Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP): The Wider Black Sea Area Context‘, Southeast European and Black Sea Studies, 7:2, 289-302

Umbach, Frank (2010) ‗Global energy security and the implications for the EU‘, Energy Policy, 38, 1229-1240