Customary knowledge is, inherited, a taonga tuku iho, a treasure handed down from the atua to ancestors, from the ancestors to the present generation and destined for future generations (Williams, 2001c). As a consequence
120
Kauae runga or esoteric knowledge, such as cosmo-genealogical orations and karakia and knowledge related to the realms beyond, is often restricted. Whereas kauae raro, exoteric or knowledge related to the physical world, is more likely to be readily available to all.
121
Like most narratives there are a range of versions. In some versions it was Maui who preformed the incorrect karakia; in others Maui was not present in the narrative related to the mortality of humankind (Keelan, 2009).
122
Under the section The research relationship in Chapter Five examples of practices that have emerged to protect the use of local mātauranga Māori are provided.
customary knowledge requires active regulation or tikanga tiaki123 and strategic development to maintain the integrity of, and strengthen the remnant customary knowledge base. Within this context ownership and possession of cultural knowledge is communal, belonging to the whole community. This is emphasised by statements in Waitangi Tribunal claims, such as ―Ngāti Kahungunu cultural knowledge is and always has been a taonga of Ngāti Kahungunu in respect of which Ngāti Kahungunu are kaitiaki‖ (Waitangi Tribunal, 2006, p. 10). This establishes an expectation that customary knowledge be used in a manner that contributes to the collective good; the wellbeing of the community. As with Western knowledge Māori too have a long tradition of recognising the importance of knowledge, particularly for community development and benefit. For example the following oha (speech, parting words) emphasises that the pursuit and attainment of knowledge is challenging however the benefits can be substantial, ko ngā pūtake o te mātauranga he
kawa engari anō ngā hua kei reira te mutunga mai te reka124
(The roots of knowledge are bitter but as for the fruit it is very very sweet).
The use of kai as a reference to knowledge is an interesting and deliberate metaphor. Metaphorically knowledge is kai, a food that is eaten and taken into the body. As a consequence knowing and wisdom emerges from the internalisation of knowledge,125ko te manu e kai ana i te miro, nona te ngahere, ko te manu e kai ana i te mātauranga nona te ao (the bird that feeds on the miro berry, its domain is the forest. The bird that feeds on knowledge, its domain is the world). In this context knowledge becomes part of the person and just like all parts of the body must be treated with dignity, honour and respect. However as Del Wihongi, Te Rarawa kaumatua and pioneering advocate of kaitiakitanga, reminds us that while the individual can act as the custodian of that knowledge, regulation of access, use and development of knowledge must occur within the customs and traditions of the collective:
Kaitiakitanga is the term that is often used incorrectly. When we speak of ―kai‖ we speak of eating and hence taking into oneself. The act of taking the thing into oneself indicates how these things were viewed such as is part of you. ―Tiaki‖ means to guard. When you speak about the things such as knowledge, Māori view the responsibilities of kaitiaki as including the ability to treat this knowledge as an integral part of themselves. This includes ensuring that those things are looked after in accordance with our customs and traditions. (Wihongi, 1997 as cited in M. Solomon, 2007, p. 10)126
This statement reinforces the notion that while the individual is part of the collective it is the collective that allocates the functions and activities of individuals including the right to care for and protect the resources and
123 This term has been borrowed from Māori Marsden (2003b, p. 69). Although Marsden used
this term in reference to those practices that are used to protect and conserve natural resources it can be applied more broadly.
124 This is an oha used by Waihoroi Shortland on an episode of Te Tepu that screened on Māori
Television on Wednesday August 13, 2008.
125 In the traditional whare wānanga system students swallowed pebbles at the end of each
course to symbolise knowledge transmission and retention (Mead, 2003b; P. Smith, 1913- 1915).
126 The quote can be found in Hema-nui-a-tawhaki (Del) Wihongi‘s transcript of evidence (tape
knowledge that belongs to the collective (New Zealand Law Commission, 2001, p. 61). Some types of cultural information are vested in specific individuals or families. For example in the Whakaki area protection and dissemination of whakapapa and, kaitiakitanga responsibilities are delegated to specific whānau. These people are the guardians of that information and are responsible for maintaining knowledge integrity. Individual knowledge holders are part of the wider collective and must ensure that their actions are consistent with the values and norms of that collective. Any transgressions threaten the authority and right of the collective, not just the individual, to remain as guardians of cultural knowledge. Therefore collective responsibilities and obligations are socially regulated through whakapapa. Knowledge creation and application requires recognition of interconnections and interdependences (principle of whakapapa) and the mediation of multiple collective responsibilities and relationships (tikanga tiaki). In this context whakapapa is an important regulatory aspect in knowledge creation and use for maintaining knowledge integrity; the mana and tapu associated with that knowledge. Tikanga tiaki, guardianship customs have emerged from this collective guardianship approach to knowledge creation and application, to regulate the presence of tapu and actively protect knowledge integrity.
Knowledge sharing and peer review are features of customary learning and knowledge development processes. The ancestral saying or whakatauki he pukenga wai, he noho ngā tangata, he noho ngā tangata he pukenga kōrero; when waters converge and pool, people gather, conversation flows references ―...the importance of dialogue and critical reflection (wānanga)…. and the sharing of knowledge and visions for positive Māori advancement and development‖ (Forster, 2010a, p. 36). Ko te kai a te rangatira te kōrero, talk is the food of chiefs is another well known whakatauki that reminds us of the importance of dialogue and information sharing - that conversation is a common, very Māori way of sharing information. The key point here is that the notion of knowledge sharing is the anti-thesis of regulation and the practice of gate-keeping. While in the not so distant past regulation was critical for ensuring the retention of customary knowledge, the continued relevance of this gate- keeping tikanga is one that needs reassessing. Knowledge sharing, more so than ever, is critical for knowledge development and essential if customary knowledge is to inform our contemporary realities. Regulation needs to be balanced against other considerations. We cannot be so precious with our knowledge that it dies with our knowledge holders.
I have argued in the last two sections that tikanga tiaki or the active regulation of customary knowledge is a response to the association of knowledge with tupuna, the affects of colonisation and more recent engagement in the politics of self-determination and identity. Regulation of customary knowledge is a mechanism to protect knowledge integrity and to ensure that application of knowledge is consistent with cultural precepts and that customary knowledge continues to contribute to the well-being of communities. Table 4 provides a summary of the regulation of customary knowledge as a consequence of association with tupuna, affects of colonisation and the politics of self-determination and identity. The implications of each factors is outlined and a summary of the regulatory practices that have emerged in relation to that factor is provided.
Table 4: The regulation of customary knowledge.
Implications Tikanga Tiaki
Association with tupuna
Knowledge is a taonga tuku iho, tapu and highly valued.
Regulation required to protect knowledge integrity and ensure appropriate use.
Communal ownership and regulation. Affects of colonisation Undermined indigenous knowledge systems leading to a loss of knowledge and fragmentation.
Remnant knowledge heavily regulated which can restrict access, use and development. Regulation necessary to mitigate the affects of power and authority contests with Western knowledge forms.
Politics of self- determination & identity
Customary knowledge is dynamic, evolving, has a contemporary relevancy and can contribute to community development.
Māori control over the
application of knowledge to new situations and modern issues. Regulation through knowledge sharing and peer review.
CONCLUSION
Indigenous inquiry can be considered a response to colonial domination and is concerned with privileging our intellectual traditions to ensure that research is grounded in an indigenous understanding of the world and will make a substantial contribution to community development and advancement. Customary knowledge is the foundation of collective identity and cultural heritage. It is socially constructed and intricately connected to the ancestral landscape, tribal histories and historical issues of equity and social justice that have emerged from the British colonising agenda.
Māori knowledge traditions and knowledge production are based on contemporary interpretations of cosmo-genealogical orations and narratives, ritual incantations and tribal histories that establish a customary framework for a tikanga of knowledge. It is this framework that provides us with the tools to make sense of the world and our place in it:
Mātauranga Māori is not like an archive of information but rather is like a tool for thinking, organising information, considering the ethics of knowledge, the appropriateness of it all and informing us about our world and our place in it. (Mead, 2003b, p. 306)
The purpose of this chapter was to establish a series of political and cultural arguments for the use of cultural value systems and protocols and custom as the basis for conceptualising this research project. Māori cultural values and traditions of knowledge production provide the ontological and epistemological foundation for the research. As a consequence the methodology reflects Māori worldviews and community expectations and ethics
of knowledge production outlined in this chapter. Such a position determines the types of questions that are asked and the types of processes that are used in the research project. These aspects of the research will be discussed in detail in Chapter Five.