Base Legal

Culture and religion are intertwined in constructing people’s way of life (Bryant, 2012). More specifically, culture and ideology have been determined to have a significant influence in constructing how professionals understand disability (Oliver, 1990; Ingstad & Whyte, 1995). This view was also emphasised by Vygotsky when he stated that individuals construct their sense of a certain phenomenon from socially/culturally available meanings and understandings (Daniels, 2009). As McLeod (2014) puts it, Vygotsky stresses the central role

of an individual’s culture and community in the process of making meaning and interpreting the world.

This theme of cultural and religious understanding emerged in the first interviews as cultural and religious regulations and beliefs form the basis of many people’s thinking in Saudi Arabia. In our conversations about how they understand disability, some interviewees saw disability as a kind of punishment from Allah (God); others criticised this, instead viewing disability as a mercy, a gift or abtila (test) from Allah. They also talked about predestination, with disability being a result of an evil eye and prayers from oppressed people. As a Saudi researcher, I recognise that such viewpoints are inherent in the Saudi culture, especially with elderly people. Therefore, I was led to construct this sub-theme as a consequence of a good deal of thinking about the history of disability.

A few participants (MP1, MP2, MP3, MP4 and MP7) made a connection between people’s sins and disability. They believe it is possible that Allah punishes a disabled person or a family which has a disabled person as a consequence of disobeying Allah. For example, MP7 said: “…I believe disability can be a punishment from Allah as a result of sins committed by the person or his [her] parents” (p. 3). Or as MP4 argued:

“Being disabled as a consequence of Allah’s punishment is possible. To confirm this, I will tell you a story. I know an elderly woman who prayed against a couple because they oppressed her. As a result, they had a disabled child. Allah punished them through their child because they oppressed her” (p. 2).

However, the majority of interviewees (17 out of 31) rejected this claim, instead connecting disability to other cultural and religious beliefs which include: disability being a gift, mercy and abtila (test) from Allah. For example, MP8 and MP11 stressed that disability cannot be a punishment from Allah because Allah does not punish his servants; however, they believed

that everything that happens is predestined and under Allah’s control. FP10 shared a similar rejection. She stressed that “Such a view is completely contradicted with our faith [Islam]” (p. 3). Similarly, MP13, MP15, MP16, FP1, FP2, FP3 expressed their personal rejection of this claim, but acknowledged that such belief exists among some Saudi people. This suggests that Islam has the potential to promote an affirmative model of disability.

MP9 believed in predestination, but found it difficult to judge whether a disability can be a punishment from Allah or not. He preferred not to talk about this. As he opined, “Everything that happens on earth is in the hand of Allah; however, I think it is difficult to identify whether a disability is a punishment from Allah or not. I would rather not to talk about this as such an issue is complicated” (p. 3).

MP10 believed that disability is a grace from Allah, not a punishment. As he said, “Everything that occurs to us is predestined. If a person has a disability, this is not a punishment but a grace from Allah as Allah will reward him [or her] by removing his [or her] sins in the hereafter” (p. 6). In line with this view, FP5, FP9, FP13, FP14 rejected viewing disability as a kind of punishment. Instead, they believed that disability could be an abtila (test) from Allah to test people’s patience, love and faith in Allah. They believed that a disabled person and his/her family will be rewarded for this when they are in desperate need of Allah’s rewards (رجلأا). In addition to viewing disability as an abtila (test), FP14 added that disability is a gift and a mercy. As she said, “…disability is not a punishment from Allah, but an abtila, a gift and a mercy” (p. 3).

In contrast, six respondents (MP7, MP12, MP13, FP9, FP13 and FP14) believed that the evil eye is also real and can lead to a person being disabled. As MP7 argued: “I believe a person’s

disability can be a consequence of an evil eye. As both Muslim and Albukhari (two Islamic scholars) reported, Prophet Mohammed, peace be upon him, said, ‘eye is real” (p. 7).

Similarly, MP12 argued that disability can be a consequence of the evil eye. He also provided an example to support his view, saying:

“…a consequence of an evil eye, God protect us! my older brother became disabled ‘hemiplegia’ when he was a year and half of age. However, being disabled doesn’t prevent him from being a success. He has completed his BA and MA degrees in Business and now he heads a department at […] company” (p. 4).

FP13 supported the above views, by recounting a hadith (i.e. a saying of the Prophet Mohammed) and a story to support her argument:

“Prophet Mohammed, peace be upon him, said ‘Evil eye puts a man into the grave and a camel into the cooking pot. [She also reported a story saying,] an evil eye hit one girl in our school after she did an awesome performance at the end of the school year’s celebration. As a consequence, the girl became physically disabled the day after, God preserve us!” (p. 3).

Ingstad and Whyte (1995) agree with these findings by acknowledging that disability has been viewed as a form of punishment for sins or a gift from God. I argue that in Saudi Arabia people’s interpretation of disability as being a punishment, an abtila (test), a gift or mercy from Allah or from an evil eye depends on their relationship with the disabled person or his/her family. If they have a good relationship, they view disability as an abtila (test), a gift and/or mercy to make the people involved feel comfortable, pleased and proud that Allah chose a person to be disabled or to have a disabled child. In contrast, if the relationship is bad and someone wants another person to feel shocked, distressed and shy about being disabled or having a disabled child, they view disability as a result of the evil eye or a punishment from Allah for the bad deeds that they have done. This shows that the interpretation of Islam and the behaviour of Muslims does not often represent Islam. Islam is clear and innocent from these narratives (Miles, 2001; Almusa & Ferell, 2004; Bazna & Hatab, 2005; Rispler-

Chaim, 2007; Blanks & Smith, 2009; Hassanein, 2015a; Al Khatib, 2017). All human beings are equal in the sight of Allah irrespective of race, colour and dis/ability (Ahmed, 2007) and Islam views impairments as a part of human beings’ diversity (Bazna & Hatab, 2005; Rispler-Chaim, 2007).