Capítulo I Disposición General
Artículo 10 Base liquidable
Synonyms
Ghati, Gutty.
Biological Source
It is the gummy exudates obtained from the tree bark of Anogessius latifolia Wallich, belonging to family Combreta- ceae.
Geographical Source
It is most commonly found in the forests of the sub-Hi- malayan tract in Sivalic hills as well as in the mountainous region throughout India at the altitude of 1,200 m. It has got this name from its transportation routes, as they are obtained after their travel through mountain ‘ghats’.
Cultivation and Collection
Artificial incisions are made on the tree bark in the absence of rain and gum is picked up in the month of April. The gums are graded into different grades depending upon the colour of the gum. The lighter the gum the superior its grade is. About two to three grades of Ghatti are available in the United States. The No. l Grade has low levels of ash and high viscosity. Gum is dried under sun for many days and then pulverized. It is then subjected to undergo various processes like sifting, aspiration and density table separation, for the removal of impurities.
Characters
Colour Best quality is colourless but the inferior are light yellow to dark brown
Odour Odourless
Taste Bland
Shape Translucent round tears or vermiform masses Size 1 cm diameter
Solubility Insoluble in ethyl alcohol, about 90% of the gum dissolves in water yielding a colloidal dispersion. The gum when dissolved in alcohol or if the pH of the solution is increased to neutral, it gives solution with high viscosities. It loses its viscosity at high pH
Fig. 14.11 Anogessius latifolia twig
Chemical Constituents
It consists of the calcium salt of a complex high molecular weight polysaccharide made up of sugars and uronic acid units. One of the polysaccharide acid ghattic acid contains mainly arabinose, galactose, mannose, xylose and galac- turonic acid. On hydrolysis of gum ghatti, it also affords aldobiouronic acid 6-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl uronic acid and D-galactose which is also found in gum acacia. Complete
analysis of ghatti gum shows 26.3% pentosans, 7.6% methyl pentosan, 7.6% galactan, 15.8% moisture, about 3% ash and smaller quantities of riboflavin.
Identification Tests
1. Aqueous solution (5%) of gum ghatti treated with Million’s reagent gives fine precipitate.
2. Aqueous solution of gum treated with 2% gelatin solution gives white precipitates.
3. White precipitate is produced with 10% solution of tannic acid.
4. With water the gum forms viscous colourless mucilage which is glairy and ropy.
Uses
Gum ghatti is used as a very good emulsifier, stabilizer and thickener in pharmaceutical, food and also in ceramic industry. It is an efficient binder for the compressed tablets which is comparable with acacia gum and starch paste. It gives stable oil in water emulsion therefore used in the formulation of oil soluble vitamin preparation.
Gum is edible. It is administered as a good tonic to women after child birth. It is extensively use in the pure state in calico printing and in confectionery. It is good stabilizer for ice cream in 0.5% concentration. The gum also finds its applications in the petroleum industry as a drilling mud conditioner.
ISPAGHULA
Synonyms
Ispaghula, Ispagol, Ishabgula, Spongel seeds.
Botanical Source
Ispaghula consists of dried seeds of Plantago ovata Forskal, belonging to family Plantaginaece.
Geographical Source
Ispaghula is an annual herb cultivated in India in Gujarat, Maharastra, Punjab and in some parts of Rajasthan and Sindh Province of Pakistan. It is cultivated extensively around Sidhpur in north Gujarat.
History
Blonde psyllium (Plantago ovata) is a low herbaceous annual plant native to Iran and India, extensively cultivated there and in other countries, including Pakistan. Black psyllium of the P. afra species is native to the western Mediterranean region, Northern Africa, and Western Asia, now cultivated in Southern France and Spain. Black psyllium of the P. indica species is native to Southeastern Europe and Asia. In commerce, blonde psyllium is obtained mainly from India, Pakistan, and Iran. Black psyllium is obtained mainly from southern France.
Psyllium has a long history of medical use in both con- ventional and traditional systems of medicine throughout Asia, Europe and North America. Blonde psyllium is official in the National Pharmacopeias of France, Germany, Great Britain, and the United States. Psyllium monographs also appear in the Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia, British Herbal Pharmacopoeia, British Herbal Compendium, ESCOP Monographs, Commission E Monographs, and the German Standard License Monographs. The World Health Orga- nization (WHO) has published a monograph on psyllium seed covering P. afra, P. indica, P. ovata, and P. asiatica (WHO, 1999). Asian psyllium seed (P. asiatica Linn or P. depressa Willd.) is official in the National pharmacopeias of China and Japan.
Cultivation and Collection
Isabgol seeds are sown in the month of November by broadcasting method. Well-drained loamy soil with a pH
of 7.5–8.5, cool and dry climate is suitable for its growth. Ammonium sulphate is also added as a fertilizer. Good water supply to the plants is to be provided at 8–10 days interval, seven to eight times. Though ispaghula is not affected by pests or disease, the percentage yield is decreased to great extend due to heavy rainfall or storms. The fruits are collected in the month of March/April after the fruits are completely mature and ripe. The fruits are then dried and the seeds separated.
Fig. 14.12 Plantago ovata plant
Morphology
Colour Pinkish gray to brown
Odour None
Taste Mucilaginous
Shape Ovate, boat shaped, cymbiform Size 1.5–3.5 mm long, 1–1.8 mm wide. Weight of 100 seeds 0.15–0.19 g
Appearance Seeds are hard, translucent and smooth, the dorsal (convex surface) consist of a small elongated glossy reddish brown spot at the centre while the ventral (concave surface) has a cavity having nil urn covered with a thin whitish membrane
Microscopy
A thin transverse section observed under microscope shows the following characters-
Epidermis: Single layered, thick walled transparent, tan- gentially elongated cells containing mucilage, which exudes if brought in contact with water.
Pigment Layer: Usually collapsed which is yellow in colour.
Endosperm: Outer layer consists of palisade like cells which are thick walled but inner cells are irregular and are also thick walled consisting of aleurone grains and oil globules.
Embryo: Have two cotyledons, with three to five vascu- lar bundles in each, a portion of raphe remains attached to the seed.
Chemical Constituents
Ispaghula seeds contain about 10% mucilage which is present in the epidermis of testa. Mucilage consists of two complex polysaccharides, of which one is soluble in cold water and the other soluble in hot water. Chemically it is pentosan and aldobionic acid. Pentosan on hydroly- sis yields xylose and arabinose and aldobionic acid yields galactouronic acid and rhamnose. Protein and fixed oil are present in endosperm and embryo.
Hilum
(a) (b)
Fig. 14.13 (a) Dorsal (b) Ventral
Pigment layer
Cotyledons
Epidermis
Endosperm
Fig. 14.14 T.S. (schematic) of surface of ispaghula seed
Vascular bundle Epidermis Pigment layer Endosperm Embryo
Fig. 14.15 Transverse section of ispaghula seed
Chemical Tests
1. Ispaghula seeds when treated with ruthenium red give red colour due to the presence of mucilage.
2. Add water to few seeds on a slide, mucilage comes out and forms zone surrounding the seeds.
3. Swelling factor: Swelling factor is the parameter to deter- mine the purity of seeds. Swelling can be determined quantitatively by swelling factor. 1 g of the drug is put in a measuring cylinder of 25 ml capacity and 20 ml water is added. It is shaken periodically for first 23 h and kept for one more hour. The volume occupied by the drug is called swelling factor. Swelling factor of ispaghula seeds is 10–13.
Uses
Ispaghula seeds are used as an excellent demulcent and bulk laxative in chronic constipation. The laxative activity of ispaghula mucilage is purely mechanical. It is also useful in dysentery, chronic diarrhoea, in cases of duodenal ulcers and piles. It works effectively as a soothing agent. Ispaghula husk is also used for similar purpose.
Substitutes and Adulterants
P. lanceolata Linn., occurring wild in India, is adulterated in ispaghula. Its seeds are oblong elliptical in shape with yel- lowish brown colour. The seeds of P. asiatica, (syn. P. major L.), found in Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu, are substi- tuted to ispaghula. It is also adulterated with the seeds of P. arenaria. The seeds of Salvia aegyptica are frequently mixed which also yield copious mucilage. The seeds of P. media L. have different colour and swell very little in water.
P. asiatica contains mucilage which is composed of β-1,4-linked D-xylopyranose residues having three kinds
Marketed Products
Sat Isabgol, Trifgol by Dabur, Sat-Isabgol by Dr Morepen.
TAMARIND
Synonyms
West Indian Tamarind, Imli.
Botanical Source
Tamarind consists of dried ripe fruits (freed from the brittle epicarp) of Tamarindus indica Linn., belonging to family Leguminosae.
Geographical Source
West Indies (Barbados), India.
Fibres (vascular bundles) picarp Pericarp Seed
Fig. 14.16 Fruit of tamarind
Collection
Tamarind is a superior indehiscent legume 5–20 cm long and 2 cm in width. Epicarps of the legumes are brittle, rough, brownish and hard. Mesocarp is the pulp and is acidic in nature with fibres which are vascular strands. Endocarp is leathery and encloses three to six seeds.
Dried ripe fruits are collected, epicarp is removed and hot boiling syrup is poured over it for the purpose of preserva- tion. Rarely sugar is also sprinkled in addition to syrup.
In India fruits are collected and epicarp is removed either partially or fully, and 10% salts added as a preserva- tive. Some fermentation takes place and the drug obtains a black colour.
Morphology
Colour Reddish-brown
Odour Pleasant and agreeable
Taste Sweet and acidic
Shape As fi rm black cakes which contain fi bres, seeds and little epicarp
Size 5–20 cm long and 2 cm in width
Chemical Constituents
The pulp contains 10% fruit acids, mainly tartaric acid and maleic acid, also about 8% sodium potassium tartarate and about 25–40% invert sugar along with pectin. The acidity ranges from 11 to 16%. H C COOH H C COOH Maleic acid HO CH COOH HO CH COOH Tataric acid
Uses
It acts as a gentle laxative due to osmosis and is also used as present acid refrigerant.
Marketed Product
Tamarindus indica is employed as a laxative in Laxa Tea manufactured by Himalaya Drug Company.
CHITIN
Biological Source
It is a nitrogenous polysaccharide consisting of amino and acetyl group found in the exoskeleton of the tarantula. Its a tough semitransparent horny substance—the principal component of the exoskeletons of arthropods and the cell walls of certain fungi. This is the dense substance forming the indigestible outer skeleton of insects, and the material from which the walls of the mycelia are made. This product can be found in crustaceans, such as crabs, lobsters, and shrimp. It can also be found in insects, worms, and fungus or mushrooms. Depending upon the different place and different creatures the percentage of chitin content varies.
History
Chitin was first found in Mushrooms in 1811 by Professor Henri, which was later to be called Chitin. During 1830s, it was isolated from insects and named Chitin. The name chitin is derived from Greek meaning tunic or envelope. During 1850s, Professor C. Roughet discovered while experimenting with Chitin that it could be transferred into water-soluble form through some chemical reaction and in late 1870s name Chitin modified to Chitosan and later on much of the research was focused on these compounds.
Preparation
The shells are made into fine powder and treated with 5% hydrochloric acid for 24 h to remove the impurities and calcium present in the shell. The above extract is then treated with proteolytic enzyme like pepsin for the removal of protein from the shell. The product is then bleached with acidified hydrogen peroxide for 4–6 h. It is then deacetylated at 120°C with a mixture containing two parts of potassium hydroxide, one part of ethyl alcohol and one part of ethylene glycol. The process of deacetyla- tion is continued till the test for acetylisation gives report of minimum acetyl content. This deacetylated product is known as the chitosan.
Solubility
Insoluble in water, dilute acid, alcohol and organic solvents, Soluble in sulphuric acid and hydrochloric acid.
Chemical Constituents
Chitin mainly consists of the aminosugar N-acetylglu-
cosamine, which is partially deacetylated. The mostly deacetylated form of chitin is called chitosan. Chitin is present in nature usually complexed with other polysac- charides and with proteins.
HO HO O O OH OH NH2 NH2 Chitosan OH NH2 O O n HO HO OH O
Chemical Test
1. Chitosan is soaked in iodine solution and to it add 10% sulphuric acid. It gives deep violet colour. 2. Chitosan is dissolved in 50% nitric acid and crystallized
for the formation of spherecrystals of chitosanitrate.
The crystals when observed under polarized light using crossed nicol, a distinct cross is observed.
Uses
It is used in wound healing preparations, cuts and burns. It is in medicine that the bacteriostatic, immunologic, antitumoral, hemostatic and anticoagulant properties of chitin and its derivatives have been of the greatest use. Due to its biocompatibility with human body tissue, the cicatrizant properties of chitin has demonstrated their effectiveness for all forms of dressings-artificial skin, corneal bandages and suture thread in surgery, as well as for implants or gum cicatrization in bone repair or dental surgery. In dental creams, it keeps the paste healthy and regenerates gums that are in poor condition.
Chitin is also used as a sizing agent for rayon, cotton, wool and even for synthetic fibres. It has adhesivity to glass and plastics. Industrially chitin is used in the process of water treatment by separating organic compounds and heavy metals, and for treating sewage by precipitating certain anionic wastes and capturing pollutants such as DDT and PCBs (polychlorobenzene).
CARRAGEENAN
Synonyms
Carrageenan, Chondrus extract, Irish moss extract.
Biological Source
It is the sulphated polysccharide obtained from the seaweed called Irish moss, the red algae Chondrus crispus Linn., belonging to family Gigartinaceae, class Rhodophyceae.
Geographical Source
France, Denmark, and the United States are the major producers of carrageenan in the world market.
Collection and Preparation
In autumn the algae grown on rocks are collected by means of long rakes from tide water. Carrageenan is extracted from many species of red seaweeds. The process begins with harvesting, followed by drying, cleaning, bagging or bailing. In the factory, the seaweeds are sorted, tested for quality and stored. Before being processed, they are hand-inspected, then washed to remove dirt and marine organisms and then subjected to hot alkaline extraction. When the carrageenan is dissolved, it is clarified through conventional filtration and is then concentrated by membrane ultra-filtration. The carrageenan is precipitated by alcohol or potassium chloride to separate it from soluble impurities. This is followed by drying and grinding to appropriate particle size.
Morphology
Colour Before bleaching purplish red to purplish brown in colour and after bleaching the drug is yellowish white, translucent and horny
Odour Slight odour
Taste Mucilaginous or saline taste Shape Strips, fl akes or coarse powder
Solubility Swells in cold water and above 75% dissolves in hot water
Fig. 14.17 Chondrus crispus
Constituents
The constituents of Irish moss are the similar polysaccharides as that of agar. The major constituent is galactans which is known as carrageenan. Carrageenan are classified on the basis of 3,6-anhydro-D-galactose and the position of ester sulphate
groups. Three major types of carrageenan are characterized as Kappa, Iota and Lamda-carrageenans. Hydrolysis of the polysaccharides yield galactose, glucose, fructose, arabinose and calcium salt of acid esters of sulphuric acid.
Uses
Carrageenan is used as emulsifying agent, stabilizing agent, solubilizing agent and viscosity builder in food products. Tooth paste, creams, lotions and other cosmetic products are prepared by using carrageenan. In food industry, it is utilized in milk products, ice creams, gels in the concen- tration of 0.5–1%.
Carrageenan is a popular phlogistic agent for inducing inflammation in the rat paw oedema model for the study of antiinflammatory activity.
Substitutes and Adulterants
Irish moss is occasionally mixed with seaweeds like Gigartina stellata Batt. or G. pistillata Lam., which are distinguished stalked cystocarps.