5. Estudio acondicionamiento y puesta a punto estimulador
5.1 Bases neurofisiológicas colocación electrodos
technology is set to aid climate action ambitions
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reservoir under the North Sea. The Dutch project is in the defining stage of development planning, and its next step is to make a final investment decision (FID).
Development of the Sleipner and Snøhvit projects was encouraged through a CO2tax the Norwegian government has implemented on a number of sectors (including offshore petroleum production) since 1991. In 1996, the first year of Sleipner’s operation, the CO2tax on offshore petroleum production on the Norwegian Continental Shelf was around USD 35 (~€31) per tonne of CO2. This tax was raised to around $70 per tonne in 2013, and in July 2015 the exchange rate between Norwegian currency (Norwegian krone – NOK) and US dollars modified the tax value to around $50 per tonne of CO2.
The EU ETS is currently under the EU institutions’ review – that is, the European Commission issued a legislative proposal for phase four of the EU ETS directive in July 2015. The proposal includes an innovation fund, known as the NER400, which extends the existing support (NER300) for the demonstration of innovative low carbon technologies such as CCS and includes measures to decarbonise industrial production. The fund will be filled by selling 400 million allowances of the free allocation portion of the fourth ETS phase (2021-2030). The financial mechanism will also include 50 million unallocated allowances to supplement existing resources before 2021.
significant reductions in greenhouse gas emissions from these industries.
CCS development in Europe
In 2007 the European Council agreed to an EU goal of up to 12 large-scale CCS demonstration projects by 2015, which were meant to be supported through the New Entrants Reserve (NER300) funding mechanism. NER300 was funded through the sale of 300 million carbon emission allowances in the EU ETS. The price of EU allowances (EUAs) in the EU ETS dropped from almost €30 per tonne of CO2in 2008 to less than €5/tCO2 in mid-2013, causing a substantial reshaping of the available funds for CCS projects included in the NER scheme. The UK-based White Rose project was the only CCS project to be awarded up to €300m though the financial mechanism.1
Currently, there are six CCS projects across Europe in different stages of development. This tally includes two Norwegian projects that are actually operating, one of which will achieve 20 years of operation in 2016:
n The ‘Sleipner CO2Storage Project’ was the world’s first demonstration CCS project for a deep saline reservoir and started operating in 1996. The project installations process gas and condensate from the Sleipner East and Sleipner West fields (and tie-ins from a number of satellite fields). The Sleipner project has captured, injected and stored more than 16Mt of CO2in the Utsira storage formation since 1996, and is located in the central North Sea;
n The ‘Snøhvit CO2 Storage Project’ is a
liquefied natural gas processing development in the Barents Sea off the coast of Norway. The project is designed to capture 0.7Mt of CO2per year when at full capacity and has stored as much as 3Mt of CO2since injection
started in 2008; and
n The ‘Rotterdam CCS Demonstration Project (ROAD)’ involves the retrofit of a 250MWe post-combustion capture and compression unit to a newly constructed 1,070MWe power plant located within the Rotterdam port and industrial Zuid-Holland area. The ROAD project plans to capture 1.1Mt of CO2 per year and to store it in a depleted gas
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cost of carbon abatement to the UK economy from around 1% to 2% of GDP by 2050. CCS can reduce carbon emissions from both power generation and industrial applications. The UK has committed to a reduction in emissions of at least 80% in 2050 (as against 1990 levels), which, according to the UK Committee on Climate Change’s ‘Central Scenario’ (the scenario that they have used to create the proposed fifth carbon budget for the UK government), requires a development of up to seven gigawatts (GW) of CCS within the power sector with additional investment in emissions reductions within the heavy industry sector by 2030 in order to be met. The ETI also highlights that enabling CCS to realise its potential to help decarbonise the UK economy would require a capital investment of around £22-31bn to build the sector over the period to 2030. Delaying development of CCS infrastructure could double the cost of reaching the UK climate change targets.
Notwithstanding the cancellation of the UK CCS Competition in November 2015, the Contract for Difference (CfD) concept could still be used to support electricity generation using CCS. The CfD could provide CCS project developers with an incentive to invest in the technology, but the risk of capital up-front investment of a CCS project needs to be mitigated with stable long-term policies and financial assurances. The UK Department of Energy and Climate Change (DECC) is currently examining the UK’s re-oriented approach to CCS, which should take into consideration the financial risk involved in developing large-scale CCS projects and consider options for supporting industrial CCS and the creation of CO2transport and storage infrastructure.
1 In April 2016 the White Rose Project was cancelled following the UK Secretary of State decision not to grant the development consent order for the project.
The EU institutions have the opportunity to support CCS through the EU ETS revision, which could also be broadened as suggested in the draft report proposal of the MEP Ian Duncan. As rapporteur for the EU ETS review file in the European Parliament Environment (ENVI) Committee, Duncan issued a draft proposal that foresees an additional 150 million allowances on top of the 400 million included in the innovation fund. As CCS development entails large up-front investments and long development times, Duncan’s proposal represents a very positive step for the CCS sector.
Nevertheless, a funding gap exists between the current financial mechanism and NER400. While the 50 million allowances would help to support CCS until the innovation fund becomes available, larger financial support is needed before 2020 to create the necessary transport and storage infrastructure for CCS to fully contribute to reaching the EU climate targets. UK CCS sector prospects
The UK is among the most promising European countries in developing and deploying CCS. The country currently hosts three projects in development planning – the Caledonia Clean Energy Project, the Don Valley Power Project and the Teesside Collective Project:
n Summit Power, developer of the Caledonia Clean Energy Project, intends to build a new 570MW integrated gasification combined cycle (IGCC) power plant in Grangemouth, Scotland. The proposed IGCC plant, equipped with carbon capture technology, is meant to capture 3.8Mt of CO2per year. The captured CO2would be transported to, and stored in, the central North Sea in an offshore injection site. In March 2015 the Caledonia project was awarded £4.2m (~€3.3m) in joint funding from the UK and Scottish governments for industrial research and feasibility work;
n The Don Valley Power Project (DVPP) would consist of two Sargas Stargate 250 IPCT units generating approximately 520MW of electricity. As much as 1.5Mt of CO2per year would be captured from the pressurised system; and
n The Teesside Collective is an infrastructure project developed by a cluster of industries in the northeast of England that aim at establishing a CCS-equipped industrial zone. The Teesside area is home to five of the UK’s major CO2emitting plants, and its industries are responsible for 5.6% of total industrial emissions in the UK. The project would remove up to 5Mt of CO2per year in the 2020s. The three projects are all in the evaluation stage of development planning. At this stage, a project examines a range of options to determine the business viability of a broad project concept. Development of these projects, and the transport and storage infrastructure to support them, would bring major benefits to both the UK economy and to the countries’ efforts to meet ambitious emissions reduction targets. A recent economic benefit analysis of the Teesside process industries alone has shown that it could contribute as much as £26bn to the national economy. A study published by the Energy Technologies Institute (ETI) in 2015 estimates that a failure to deploy CCS in the UK would mean almost doubling the
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General Manager Europe Middle East and Africa
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PROFILE
C
limate mitigation efforts that lead to deep decarbonisation will involve the scaling up of low carbon technologies with new network infrastructure. Examples include the capture and sequestration of industrial carbon dioxide emissions, regional combined heat and power networks, hydrogen transmission and distribution for both space heating and transport fuel, and electric vehicle recharging facilities, to name some high profile ones. The development and operation of this infrastructure as a commercial service at such a large scale is not just an engineering challenge; a substantial amount of new public and private sector institutional capability is needed to successfully progress deployment at the rapid rate necessary to achieve emissions targets in only a few decades. This is the case in all industrialised developed and developing countries alike.Novel technologies, infrastructure, commercial structures and regulations all require new governance, consenting procedures and policy frameworks that public sector institutions will have to learn and apply as key enablers of investment, and which the private sector needs to be familiar with to undertake investment. The process of decarbonisation in a time-constrained economic system cannot rely on conventional market dynamics, and requires interplay between government intervention that makes non-commercial infrastructure investible and private sector expertise to deliver individual projects.