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Thou didst break the heads of the sea-raonsters (MT 5*j**#A)

upon the waters ; . . -

Thou didst crush the heads of Leviathan*. * (239) Ps ?4.13-l4a

On that Day Yahweh

With His cruel sword, His great and powerful sword. Will punish Leviathan, the slithering serpent,

The twisting serpent Leviathan,

And will slay the monster* of the deep. * _{I r} Is 2 7 .1

We may compare the following lines from the cosmological poem in Job 26.3-14 Î

With His strength He quelled the Sea; With His skill He dashed Rahab in pieces ;

His hand slaying the slithering serpent. w 12,13b

Notable in several passages is the combination of mythic, historical, and warrior-theophany features; thus; 2 Sam 22.8-18 (=Psjl8); Ps 77.17-

21 ( E W 1 6-2 0); Ps 144.3-7; Hab 3-3-15; Nah 1.3b-6,8; Bzk 32.2-10; cf also; Ps 114; Ps 135.6-12; Is 23.2 .

To some extent the chaos-battle terminology is discernible in the | Song of the Sea (Ex 13.3,8,10). Furthermore, in certain passages the Sea itself takes on the character of the primordial chaos-waters

(Ps 68.22; 76 .13 ; 1 1 4 .3 ,5 ; Is 11.15; of Zech 1 0 .11 ) (2 4 o ) . This is ' especially evident in the concept of the "many waters" (241). The ’ turbulent movement of the chaos-waters may also be Indicated in the motif of the Sea, or waters, being put to flight (ps 114.3a,3a; Ps 104i 7a), Similar use of mythical terminology is apparent in descriptions ] of Yahweh’s power in creation and control of natural forces (2 4 2 ) , % Mention may also be made of Yahifeh’s Holy Mountain and related concepts

frequently attested in the «Book of Psalms and in the prophetic ‘ literature. These concepts are undoubtedly influenced by the cosmic ! mountain (especially Zaphon, the mountain of Baal the warrior) which ;| features prominently in the Ugai'itic myths. (243). 1

The traditional portrayal of Yahweh as warrior is supported by *

additional literary evidence. i

Yahweh*s warrior activity is especially epitomised in the ancient

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Yahweh's perpetual conflict with, Amalek (Ex 1 7.1 6), Similarly, the ancient Song of the Ark (Nu 10.33f ) essentially preserves a

tradition of Yahweh’s role in the wars of the Conquest; (for the use of the Ark in battle, vide supra pp I 8 f ). Significantly, David’s battles are called "Yahweh’s wars" (1 Sam 18.17» 25.28),

References to collections of war poetry testify to the existence from an early date of a written tradition preserving details of Yahweh’s saving acts. Numbers 21.14 mentions as a literary source the Book of the Wars of Yahweh ( ) ; something of the content is indicated in verses l4b-13 which refer to Yahweh’s actions at the | Reed Sea and on the journey to the borders of Moab, Joshua 10.13a | mentions the Book of Yashar ("the Upright"; as the source of the episode at Gibeon when the sun and moon stood still ( w 12ff), In 2 Samuel 1.18b the Book of Yashar appears again as the source of 3_« David’s lament for Saul and Jonathan ( w 19-27). (244). We may also 1

note, with reference to the ancient saying about Yahweh’s perpetual j war with Amalek, that Yahweh’s word against Amalek is to be written in a book (Ex 17.14).

The literary presentation of Yahweh as warrior includes the use of certain descriptive epithets and appellations. The most distinctive of these, and by far the most frequently used, is the title Yahweh of hosts (2 4 3). The attempted explanation of the phrase gives rise to considerable variety of opinion among scholars. Discussion centres , mainly on the meaning of the term "hosts", in regard to which several writers would limit the interpretation to a particular connotation

(246). It is more likely, however, that the term applies to all powers and bodies under Yahweh’s control and command (247) , and therefore that it may be taken to indicate generally the omnipotence of Yahweh. This is especially borne out in the Septuagint translation, where, out of some 200 instances, 121 are rendered by the Greek K

, and 23 by (248). More

important, therefore, than analysing the term "hosts" is the need to examine the meaning and ethos of the phrase Yahweh of hosts as a whole.

It is significant in the first instance that it is the God of Israel who is thus designated. The juxtaposition of Yahweh of hosts and God ^

of Israel (249)» along with the emphatic statement: "Yahweh of hosts is His name" (230), might lead us to suppose that the title Yahweh of hosts is intended to indicate an enlarged concept of Israel’s God

over against the more limited idea of the tribal god, the "God of the Fathers" (251), Yahweh of hosts, therefore, is not so much a new name or an additional epithet, but rather a new extension of the concept of

The distribution of the phrase in the Old Testament Indicates a

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predominantly prophetic usage covering the whole era of the classical 1 prophets from the eighth century to the late post-exilic period. It

is probable, however, that the concept is more ancient than the # literary tradition of the prophets (252), Particularly interesting is | the association of the phrase with the archaic warrior-terminology in | Psalm 24 (vv 7-10; of Jer 32.18b~19a). In addition, several scholars 1

assume a connection with the ancient Ark (253). Although belonging to# the later literary strand of Samuel (254), 1 Samuel 1.3,11 may

preserve an earlier authentic tradition of the association of the name Yahweh of hosts with the ancient sanctuary at Shiloh (255)* A more important consideration is the range of contexts in which the phrase occurs. Examination of these related contexts indicates that the epithet is closely associated with the characteristic motifs of the holy war tradition, and especially with the imagery of warrior- theophany (256). It would seem reasonable, therefore, to suppose that the epithet Yahweh of hosts has its ultimate origin within the holy war tradition of ancient Israel, and more especially in relation to the concept and portrayal of Yahweh as all-powerful creator, warrior, and king,

The presentation of Yahweh as warrior is further indicated in such archaic phrases as ;

'T'T" Ex 15.3; Is 42.13; Ps 24.8b;

N N niiT Ps 24.8a;

and in the appellation 10.21; cf the messianic context. Is 9.5(BW6); note also the extended phrase , #| Dt 10.17; Neh 9-3 2a; Jer 32,18. The description of Yahweh as

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isation of Yahweh as God of might and warrior par excellence (257)* 1 The concept of Yahweh as king (258) is frequently associated with si

the portrayal of Yahweh as warrior. Psalm 24 provides the foremost j •1 illustration. The Psalm opens with a definitive statement of Yahweh’s ] universal sovereignty (259), and presents in verses 7-10 an explicit ] description of the divine king-warrior returning victorious from

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battle. The original imagery is best understood in terms of the J 'A mythical wars of the gods . Two features are especially significant ;

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