Grounded theory is a general methodology for developing theory that is grounded in data systematically gathered and analysed (Strauss & Corbin, 1994, p. 273). Data are collected in multiple stages; emergent themes are identified, interpreted, compared and refined. This process creates a funnel of information from which constructs and theories are developed. These theories are then tested with various sampling groups to examine their strength of the similarities and differences of the theoretical constructs. This form of study does not start with a hypothesis. Instead relationships are established and a working hypothesis is formed after collecting the initial data
which is then checked against further data. The systematic, structured approach to data collection involved in grounded theory enables it to be descriptive and also have explanatory power.
Grounded theory stresses the importance of context in which people function, and the roles they adopt in an interaction. Holloway (1997) claimed that researchers use grounded theory to investigate interactions, behaviours and experiences as well as individual perceptions and thoughts on them. The main aim of ground theory is to generate theory from data, the existing theories can be modified and extended by this approach (Holloway, 1997). Grounded theory needs researchers to start with an area of interest, collect data and allow the relevant ideas to develop. In general, grounded theory analysis proceeds in three steps (Punch, 2005). Firstly, to find conceptual categories in the data; secondly, to find relationships between these categories; and lastly, to conceptualize and account for these findings at a higher level of abstraction. Accordingly, this study followed those three procedures sequentially that took place from generating conceptual categories, in-depth explaining variation of the data that led to theory building.
Phase 1: Investigating the use of diagrams that students are exposed to when learning secondary biology concepts.
A content analysis was conducted with the aim of investigating the different diagram types that students are dealing with in their everyday biology learning. The aim of content analysis is to check the availability of various types of illustrations used in explaining biological concepts. In addition to that, the distributional features of diagrams were explored through the examination of a number of teaching materials, such as textbooks and student workbooks. Nine textbooks were closely examined for the presence of diagrams. Data collection involved extensive searches of student textbooks and teacher resource materials used in Western Australian senior high schools. The textbooks used had been identified by state syllabus organizations as current in Australian senior secondary science and biology education and were used in the school where the research took place. The process of content analysis can be briefly divided into three steps: (1) Coding the diagrams in the nine textbooks. A list of those textbooks examined is found in Appendix 1. (2) Cross-checking the results.
The numbers of all diagrammatic types in each textbook and chapter have been crosschecked several times by the researcher himself together with another academic faculty member. Before that, uniformity on the criterion of the diagram classification was achieved to determine which diagram type does a single illustration belong to. (3) Conducting the quantitative data analysis. Descriptive statistics were conducted in the analysis of the quantitative data to enable the interpretation of any trends that exist between different textbook types related to the lower and upper secondary science and biology textbooks.
Phase 2: Observing teachers’ instructional use of diagrams in helping students make sense of particular biological content such as genetics and cellular respiration. Of particular interest to the researcher were the role of diagram-inclusive instruction and the actual teaching process with diagrams engaged in the everyday secondary biology classroom teaching. Consequently, in keeping with the qualitative approach for research into teachers’ and students’ use of diagrams, an interpretive design (Erickson, 1986) was used to address this interest. Erickson (1986) suggested that in qualitative analysis, one researcher wants to discover by means of analytic induction, which includes generating a few general assertions and sub-assertions - pattern statements with a wide enough corpus of data connected. The credibility and dependability of interpretive research are affected by access to the school and classes, combined with the researcher’s credibility (Goetz & LeCompte, 1984). Through the research conducted into the use of diagrams in textbooks, the researcher was familiar with the scientific diagrams used in teaching, the biology content and had developed skills in the recognition and classification of the diagrams as they were presented. The researcher observed different biology teachers’ teaching in a local public senior high school for several semesters. A total of 92 lessons from five biology teachers were observed and teachers’ instructional methods of diagrammatic usage were analysed to determine how diagrams are incorporated in everyday biology teaching. The qualitative data collected in this study included field notes, teachers’ teaching materials and audio tapes of lessons during teachers’ instruction. The author also discussed the findings with his supervisor and other colleagues.
Phase 3: To investigate students’ perceptions toward biology teachers’ instructional use of diagrams.
Since diagrams are widely used in textbooks, biology classrooms, different diagrams have their own advantages and limitations in guiding learning. Students therefore may encounter difficulties in interpreting diagrams or finding the relations between the diagrams and the concepts they represent. In this stage, an instrument was developed for identifying students’ perceptions regarding instructional use of diagrams in their biology class. The development of the instrument for assessing students’ perceptions of teachers’ instructional usage required several stages:
Identifying and defining the salient characteristics of teaching approaches in the multiple representational learning environments.
Referring to and adapting previously validated instruments to determine if the scales identified hold up when the focus is limited to teaching biology with diagrams (Examples of original scales and items are shown in Table 3.2). Discussing the items with teachers to ensure the suitability and accuracy of
the questionnaire as a whole.
Revising the questionnaire according to the feedback.
Administering the questionnaire and conducting the analysis.
By analysing the results from administration of the questionnaire, teachers can examine how those factors are employed in the instructional use of diagrams in the biology classroom.
Table 3.2 Example of Original Scales and Items
Scales Example items
Instructional Repertoire
1. My teacher’s teaching methods keep me interested in science.
2. My teacher provides opportunities for me to express my point of view. 7. My teacher uses a variety of diagrams when we study different biology topics.
Representational Repertoire
9. My teacher uses familiar examples to explain scientific concepts. 11. My teacher uses demonstrations to show science concepts. 13. My teacher uses stories to explain science ideas.
Subject Matter Knowledge
16. My teacher knows the content (s)he is teaching.
19. My teacher knows how science is related to technology. 20. My teacher knows the history behind science discoveries. Knowledge of
Students’ Understanding
22. My teacher’s tests evaluate my understanding of a topic. 26. My teacher assesses the extent to which I understand the topic. 27. My teacher uses tests to check that I understand what I have learned.
Phase 4: To explore how diagrams correlate with textual representations in helping students developing their understanding of biological concepts?
This stage of the research involved searching for consistencies between the data collected in stages 1 and 2 and the various functions of multiple representations as identified in the review of literature (e.g. Ainsworth, 1999). By relating to the theoretical framework and previous research findings, it is intended that this stage may reveal how the three different cognitive functions exist between students’ interpretation of diagrams together with text. Since representational modes may be related to each other in conveying meaning, the research of this stage was intended to describe the cognitive processes of individuals’ interpretation of biology concepts elaborated through the interplay of diagram and text. In particular, the researcher developed an interview protocol (see Appendix 3), in which a number of biological concepts are illustrated with different types of diagrams and written text. The interviewing procedure was designed to elicit students’ interpretation from two sources - diagram and text, respectively - and then to compare and analyse how the information relates to each other. In this regard, the qualitative data were examined to investigate the functional roles of diagrams and text engaged in students’ conceptual learning of biological concepts.
As mentioned above, the methodology and the associated methods used in the data collection are from different sources to enrich the data analysis and interpretation. The data collection methods, data sources, analyses and interpretation methods for the four research phases are mapped in Table 3.3. Within grounded theory the research begins with a research situation, the researcher gradually understands what is happening there and manages further data collection as the study proceeds. Charmaz (2000) claimed that grounded theory fits within the constructivist paradigm because it allows theory to emerge as connections between interpretations of data accumulate. Once the data collection proceeds, the links between theoretical propositions occur in different research phases that help to discover the theory implicit in the data.
55 Table 3.3: Mapping the Research Methods to Research Questions
Research Objectives
Research Questions
Data Collection Method (V=verbal data; N=numerical data)
Source (T for teacher; S for students) Methodological Framework in Data Analysis
Observations Content analysis Questionnaire Interview
Phase One RQ1 What kind of diagrams are students
exposed to when learning science and biology in senior high school?
N S Interpretive research
RQ2 How are diagrams distributed in textbooks?
RQ3 What are the development tendencies of the diagrammatic usage in the textbooks?
N N S S Interpretive research Interpretive research
Phase Two RQ4 How do teachers choose to use different
types of diagrams when teaching secondary biology?
V T & S Discourse analysis,
verbal analysis
Phase Three RQ5 What are the dimensions that biology teachers need to be aware of when diagrams are used in the teaching?
RQ6 What are students’ perceptions of teachers’ instructional strategies with diagrams? N N S S Interpretive research Interpretive research
Phase Four RQ7 What roles do diagrams and text play
when learners relate both representations to understand biological concepts?
V S Discourse analysis,