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A number of philosophical assumptions affect social science research, which are based upon the researcher’s perception of the world. A subjective-objective framework was suggested by Burrell and Morgan (1979), which includes four categories of philosophical assumptions relating to the nature of social sciences: human nature, methodology, epistemology and ontology. These writers comment that assumptions within social science research is dependent upon these four factors, and specifically that German idealism and sociological positivism define the framework’s objective and subjective aspects. Saunders et al. (2007) comment that the objectivist approach assumes that entities are external to those involved in the research, yet exist in the real world. Bryman (2004) offers a similar stance, claiming that

the objectivist makes the assumption that the social world is separate from human beings, and has an independent existence. Contrary to this approach is the view of the subjectivist who views entities as social constructs, with an existence that relies upon the actions and perceptions of human beings (Bryman, 2016).

In Figure 4.1, the two extremes of the subjective-objective framework are described(Burrell and Morgan, 1979). Ontology is the first assumption described in the framework, which deals with the nature of both being and reality (Saunders et al., 2015).Reality is external to the individual or, alternatively, a product of internal individual consciousness, which may be ‘objective’ with an existence that is independent of human awareness of interaction; alternatively, it may be an individual construct within the mind (Burrell and Morgan, 1979). Both realism and nominalism are part of the ontological debate, with the debate surrounding reality suggesting that the social world that comprises concepts, labels and names exists in perceptions, yet a ‘real’ structure to the world does not exist (Burrell and Morgan, 1979). The objectivist approach which assumes that entities are external to those involved in the research, and yet exist in the real world was supported by Bryman (2004), he added to this stance by claiming that the objectivist makes the assumption that the social world is separate from human beings, and has an independent existence. Contrary to this approach is the view of the subjectivist who views entities as social constructs, with an existence that relies upon the actions and perceptions of human beings (Bryman, 2008).

Figure 4. 1: Assumptions made about the Nature of Social Science Research The Subjective - Objective Dimension

The subjectivist The objectivist

approach to approach to

Social Science Social Science

Ontology

Epistemology Human Nature

Epistemology

Source: Burrell and Morgan (1979)

This approach to ‘reality’ proposes that the social world exists in a state that is independent of human perception, and comprises structures that are real and concrete (Burrell and Morgan, 1979).

Epistemology is the second assumption within the subjective-objective model, which refers to how one might understand the world and communicate knowledge to others (Burrell and Morgan, 1979). An explanation of epistemology is questioning whether knowledge is something that can be claimed that is labelled as positivism on the subjective-objective dimension. Alternatively, is it based upon personal experience, which is regarded as anti- positivism (Burrell and Morgan, 1979).

Quantitative research is often linked to positivism, since it is based upon hard facts. Saunders et al. (2007) suggest that this approach has been adopted by social scientists in their study of human nature, because it involves methods of research and models. An epistemology that is positivist attempts to predict, as well as to explain what is going on by looking for causal relationships and regularities in the social world (Burrell and Morgan, 1979). In contrast, an epistemology that is anti-positivist makes the assumption that the social world can only be

Realism Positivism Determinism Nomothetic Nominalism Anti - Positivism Voluntarism Ideographic

understood from the standpoint of an individual who is involved directly in the activities studied. Knowledge about the social world is viewed by anti-positivists as subjective and not objective (Burrell and Morgan, 1979).

The researcher’s view relating to human nature in social services is the third assumption of the subjective-objective framework, which is linked to epistemological assumptions, but may be seen as separate from a conceptual point of view. The relationship between the environment and human beings is explained in this assumption by Burrell and Morgan (1979), who refer to ‘determinism’ and ‘voluntarism’ as two extreme perspectives of human nature. ‘Determinism’ considers human beings as being under environmental control, whereas ‘voluntarism’ assumes that the environment can be influenced by human beings.

The continuum as it relates to methodology is the fourth assumption of the subjective- objective discussion, which is about how human nature epistemology and ontology have a direct influence upon the determination of the methodology to be deployed. Methodology may be categorised as ‘nomothetic’ or ‘ideographic’ alongside the subjective-objective dimension. A methodology that is ideal could be considered for use when humans have free will and when reality is based upon experiences that are subjective (Ryan et al., 2002). According to Burrell and Morgan (1979), an approach that is ‘ideographic’ is based upon first- hand knowledge of the subject being investigated; nomothetic research methods should be used if the reality has not been constructed socially and the researcher has a deterministic view of human nature, which focuses upon quantitative data analysis techniques. It is commented by Godfrey et al. (2000) that quantitative methods applied in social science research draws conclusions by focusing upon the testing of hypotheses.

The researcher uses the positivist approach in this thesis, preferring not to mix this approach with other paradigms. The typology raised by Burrell and Morgan (1979) encouraged the researcher to consider his own world view and to satisfy himself that valid assumptions underpin this thesis. In addition, the attention of the researcher was focussed upon the questions being asked, together with the appropriateness of the methodology and methods used. The next section shows how the current research fits into the functionalist paradigm suggested by (Burrell and Morgan, 1979).