BENEFICIOS NO APLICABLES

Introduction

The chief information officer (CIO) can be defined as the highest ranking IT execu- tive who typically exhibits managerial roles requiring effective communication with top management, a broad corporate perspective in managing information resources, influence on organizational strategy, and responsibility for the planning of IT. This definition is in line with research which applied the following criteria when select- ing CIOs for empirical observation: (1) highest ranking information technology executive; (2) reports no more than two levels from the CEO (i.e., either reports to the CEO or reports to one of the CEOs direct reports); (3) areas of responsibility include information systems, computer operations, telecommunications and net- works, office automation, end-user computing, help desks, computer software and applications; and (4) responsibility for strategic IS/IT planning.

According to Gartner (2005), only a few CEOs view CIOs as boardroom peers. Most CEOs view their CIOs as effective operational leaders. Yet only a few view them as full business leaders. There is an opportunity for CIOs to build their relationship with their CEO and other stakeholders — to increase their influence and to enhance the contribution of information systems and information technology.

The Chief Information Officer 

The.CIO.Position

The CIO position emerged in the 1970s as a result of increased importance placed on IT. In the early 1980s, the CIO was often portrayed as the corporate savior who was to align the worlds of business and technology. CIOs were described as the new breed of information managers who were businessmen first, managers second, and technologists third (Grover, Jeong, Kettinger, & Lee, 1993). It was even postulated that in the 1990s, as information became a firm’s critical resource, the CIO would become the logical choice for the chief executive officer (CEO) position.

Job advertisements for information systems positions from 1970 to 1990 were re- viewed by Todd, McKeen, and Gallupe (1995). They investigated specific positions related to programmers, systems analysts, and information systems managers. It is the latter position that is of interest here. At the time of the research, it was consid- ered that successful information systems managers should have a blend of techni- cal knowledge and sound business-related skills. Further, in general, they should possess effective interpersonal skills. Over the 20-year period, Todd et al. (1995) determined that there had not been much change in the required skills indicated in job advertisements.

Benjamin, Dickinson, and Rockart (1985) suggested that the emergence of the CIO role represented the recognition of the importance of the role to be played within the organization. Kaarst-Brown (2005), however, suggests it is unfortunate that 20 years later, in 2005, the CIO is still held in lower regard than those senior managers of other more traditional business units. Kaarst-Brown (2005) suggests the reasons for this gap may be attributed to some of the items on the following list:

• Personality conflicts

• Lack of corporate technology vision

• Poorly aligned IT goals

• Lack of business knowledge

• Lack of IT awareness among the business executives

• Incorrect formal structure and reporting relationships

However, Kolbasuk (2005) reported that the perception of CIOs within organizations may be evolving. She suggests they may finally be getting the respect they deserve as they become members of the board of directors of large companies. This move- ment to the board level in the organization indicates the perception of the CIO role is evolving from a manager primarily focused on regulations, back office operations,

and administrative duties to applying information technology at a strategic level to facilitate competitive advantage through an understanding of how business processes function and may be adapted to a changing corporate environment.

As a manager of people, the CIO faces the usual human resource roles of recruiting, staff training, and retention, and the financial roles of budget determination, forecast- ing, and authorization. As the provider of technological services to user departments, a significant amount of work in publicity, promotion, and internal relations with user management remains. As a manager of an often-virtual information organization, the CIO has to coordinate sources of information services spread throughout and beyond the boundaries of the firm. The CIO is thus more concerned with a wider group of issues than most managers.

While information systems executives share several similarities with the general manager, notable differences are apparent. The CIO is not only more concerned with a wider group of issues than most managers, but also, as the chief information systems strategist, has a set of responsibilities that must constantly evolve with the corporate information needs and with information technology itself. It has been suggested that the IT director’s ability to add value is the biggest single factor in determining whether the organization views information technology as an asset or a liability.

According to Earl and Feeny (1994, p. 11), chief information officers have a dif- ficult job:

Chief information officers have the difficult job of running a function that uses a lot of resources but that offers little measurable evidence of its value. To make the information systems department an asset to their companies — and to keep their jobs — CIOs should think of their work as adding value in certain key areas.

Creation of the CIO role was driven in part by two organizational needs. First, ac- countability is increased when a single executive is responsible for the organization’s processing needs. Second, creation of the CIO position facilitates the closing of the gap between organizational and IT strategies which has long been cited as a primary business concern.

Alignment of business and IT objectives is not only a matter of achieving competitive advantage, but is essential for the firms very survival. Though the importance of IT in creating competitive advantage has been widely noted, achieving these gains has proven elusive. Sustained competitive advantage requires not only the development of a single system, but the ability to consistently deploy IT faster, cheaper, and more strategically than one’s competitors. IT departments play a critical role in realizing

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the potential of IT. The performance of IT functions, in turn, often centers on the quality of leadership, meaning, the CIO.

As early as 1984, some surveys suggested that one-third of U.S. corporations had a CIO function, if not in title. While exact percentages differ, ranging from 40 to 70%, Grover et al. (1993) found that the number of senior-level information systems executive positions created over the past 10 years had grown tremendously. Early research conducted on the CIO position examined 43 of 50 top ranked Fortune 500 service organizations in the United States, and noted that 23 (58%) of these orga- nizations had the CIO position. In 1990, the 200 largest Fortune 500 industrial and service organizations were examined, and it was found that 77% of the industrials had a CIO position as compared with 64% of the service organizations. It is very likely that these numbers have increased in recent years.

Few studies have examined the reasons behind the creation of the CIO position in firms. Creation of the position effectively increases accountability by making a single executive responsible for corporate information processing needs. In a sample of Fortune 500 firms (i.e., appearing on the list for four consecutive years), 287 firms with CIOs were compared in 1995 to firms without CIOs on a number of variables hypothesized to predict creation of the position. It was observed that a number of characteristics of the corporate board, including the number of outside directors and equity ownership of the directors, predicted the existence of the CIO position. A firm’s information intensity was also found to be positively related to the creation of the CIO position. Furthermore, the CIO position was more likely to exist when the CEO appreciated the strategic value and importance of IT.

The CIO title itself has become a source of confusion. The term CIO has been somewhat loosely defined and is often used interchangeably with various titles such as IT director, vice president of IS, director of information resources, director of information services, and director of MIS, to describe a senior executive respon- sible for establishing policy and controlling information resources. Sometimes, the CIO label denotes a function rather than a title. Studies relating to the CIO have focused on the evolution of the position and the similarities between the CIO and other senior-level executives.

The CIO label itself has been met with resistance, and some firms have replaced the title with alternative labels such as knowledge manager, chief knowledge officer (CKO), or chief technology officer (CTO). It has been found that the CKO has to discover and develop the CEO’s implicit vision of how knowledge management would make a difference and how IT can support this difference.

There are differences between the tasks of a CTO, CIO, and CKO. While the CTO is focused on technology, the CIO focuses on information, and the CKO focuses on knowledge. When companies replace a CIO with a CKO, it should not only be a change of title. Rather, it should be a change of focus. Alternatively, as we shall

see later in this book, the CIO might expand his or her power base by including the roles of the CTO and the CKO in the position of the CIO.

Applegate, McFarlan, and McKenney (1996) indicate that the CIO is becoming a member of the top management team and participates in organizational strategy development. Similarly, it has been stated that CIOs see themselves as corporate officers and general business managers. This suggests that CIOs must be politically savvy and that their high profile places them in contention for top-line management jobs. The results of these studies indicate that today’s CIO is more a managerially oriented executive than a technical manager. Some provide a profile of the ideal CIO as an open communicator with a business perspective, capable of leading and motivating staff, and as an innovative corporate team player. Karimi, Somers, and Gupta (2001) found that successful CIOs characterized themselves in the follow- ing way:

• I see myself to be a corporate officer.

• In my organization, I am seen by others as a corporate officer. • I am a general business manager, not an IT specialist.

• I am a candidate for top-line management positions. • I have a high-profile image in the organization.

• I have political as well as rational perspectives of my firm.

• I spend most of my time outside the IT department focusing on the strategic and organizational aspects of IT.

Business strategist is likely to be among the most significant roles that CIOs will fulfill in the digital era, according to Sambamurthy, Straub, and Watson (2001). As a business strategist, the CIO must understand and visualize the economic, competitive, and industry forces impacting the business and the factors that sustain competitive advantage. Further, the CIO must be capable of plotting strategy with executive peers, including the chief executive officer (CEO), chief operating officer (COO), and other senior business executives (Sambamurthy et al., 2001, p. 285):

Business strategist is likely to be among the most significant roles that CIOs will fulfill in the digital era. As a business strategist, the CIO must understand and visualize the economic, competitive, and industry forces impacting the business and the factors that sustain competitive advantage. Further, the CIO must be capable of plotting strategy with executive peers, including the chief executive officer (CEO), chief operating officer (COO), and other senior business executives. Not only are CIOs drawn into the mainstream of business strategy, but also their compensation

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is being linked with the effectiveness of competitive Internet actions in many firms. With an understanding of current and emergent information technologies and an ability to foresee breakthrough strategic opportuni- ties as well as disruptive threats, CIOs must play a lead role in educating their business peers about how IT can raise the competitive agility of the firm. Obviously, to be effective business strategists, the CIOs must be members of an executive leadership team and part of the dominant coalition that manages the firm.

Blair (2005) cautions, however, that while there is a movement toward more of an emphasis for the CIO to understand the business, the CIO must still be the informa- tion technology champion within the organization. The CIO needs to know both the business and the information technology. Thus, while the CIOs of the future will be involved in strategy, they must understand information technology and how it can be applied to positively impact the business.

With an understanding of current and emergent information technologies and an ability to foresee breakthrough strategic opportunities as well as disruptive threats, CIOs must play a lead role in educating their business peers about how IT can raise the competitive agility of the firm. To be effective business strategists, the CIOs must be members of an executive leadership team and part of the dominant coali- tion that manages the firm.

Reporting.Levels

Although it was originally expected that the CIO would have high levels of influ- ence within the firm, as the definition of job responsibilities would suggest, recent surveys indicate that this may not be the case. CIOs may not actually possess stra- tegic influence with top management, and they may lack operational and tactical influence with users. Some specific problems include higher-than-average corporate dismissal rates compared with other top executives, diminished power with belt tightening and budget cuts, high expectations of new strategic systems that CIOs may not be able to deliver, lack of secure power bases due to the fact that CIOs are viewed as outsiders by top management, and the fact that few CIOs take part in strategic planning and many do not report to the CEO.

Over time, the number of CIOs reporting to CEOs seems to increase. In 1992, only 27% of surveyed CIOs in the United States reported to CEOs, while this number had increased to 43% five years later, as listed in Figure 2.1. In 2005, Gartner (2005) found that 40% of the surveyed CIOs reported to the CEO, 18% to the CFO, 21% to the COO, and 21% to other executives.

In Norway, the numbers in Figure 2.1 seem to indicate a stable level above 40% or maybe an insignificant decline in the fraction of CIOs reporting to the CEO. An interesting development is indirect reports moving from CFOs to other top execu- tives.

It has to be noted that the difference in size of the business community between the USA and Norway makes the comparison weak. Also, European companies tend to have a very different executive reporting structure compared to companies based in the United States.

In a U.S. survey in 2000 cited by Schubert (2004), 33% of the CIOs reported to the CEO, while 20% reported to the CFO. Forty-seven percent reported to another top executive in the company, as listed in Figure 2.1. It is interesting to note that among those U.S. CIOs not reporting to the CEO in 2000, most of them reported to the chief operating officer (COO).

In most countries surveyed by Gartner (2005), CIOs tended to report to an executive other than the CEO. Not so in Japan and South Korea, where more than two-thirds of IT executives had the CEO for a boss. Regardless of whom they reported to, CIOs in the U.S., Canada, South Korea, and Singapore said they spent the most time interacting with other business executives.

In a Gartner (2005) CIO 100 survey in the US, 40% of the respondents held the title of CIO, 7% were both CIO and executive vice presidents (EVP), 16% were both CIOs and senior vice presidents (SVP), 22% were chief technology officers (CTO), and 15% had other titles such as director.

The CIO’s pivotal responsibility of aligning business and technology direction presents a number of problems. Moreover, rapid changes in business and informa- tion environments have resulted in corresponding changes at the IT function helm. This role has become increasingly complex, causing many firms to look outside

Chief Information Officer (CIO) reporting to:

USA

1992 1997USA 2000USA 2005USA Norway 1997 Norway 1999 Norway 2000

Chef Executve

Officer (CEO) 2% 4% % 40% 48% 44% 4%

Chef Fnancal

Officer (CFO) 44% 2% 20% 8% 2% 2% 6%

Other top executve

n the company 2% 2% 4% 42% % % 4%

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the organization for the right qualifications. Characteristics such as professional background, educational background, and current length of tenure have been ex- amined in previous research. CIO problems seem to indicate that, when compared with other senior executives, CIOs do not have the authority or ability to achieve the kind of changes that were promised when the position was initially proposed. A second and possibly related explanation is that CIOs are experiencing manage- rial role conflicts that prevent them from meeting those expectations as originally envisioned in the CIO position.

Hybrid.Manager

Robson (1997) has suggested that CIOs have to be hybrid managers to be successful. Hybrid managers require business literacy and technical competency plus a third dimension. This third item is the organizational astuteness that allows a manager to make business-appropriate IS use and management decisions that enhance or set business directions as well as follow them. It is fairly well recognized that hybrid managers are problematic, perhaps requiring built-in talent and personal qualities, but can be encouraged or discouraged. For this reason, undergraduate study can generally produce only hybrid users, while postgraduate and post-experience study can support the development of hybrid managers.

Hybrid users are the people involved in user-controlled computing, they combine a degree of technical competence with business literacy required to fulfill their primary role (Robson, 1997, p. 367):

This management description is not just another term to describe the us- ers engaged in the user-controlled computing. A clear distinction exists between hybrid users and hybrid managers and this distinction is one of emphasis and purposes. Hybrid users are the people involved in user- controlled computing, they combine a degree of technical competence (perhaps defined by notions such as the end-user continuum) with, of course, the business literacy required to fulfill their primary role. Hybrid managers, as opposed to managers who are hybrid users, require this business literacy and technical competency plus a third dimension. This third item is the organisational astuteness that allows a manager to make business-appropriate IS use and management decisions that enhance or set business directions as well as follow them. It is fairly well recognised that hybrid users can be trained whereas the more sophisticated devel- opment of hybrid managers is problematic, perhaps requiring inbuilt

talent and personal qualities, but can be encouraged or discouraged. For this reason undergraduate study can generally produce only hybrid users whilst postgraduate and post-experience study can support the development of hybrid managers.

The notion of hybrid management is an essentially British one and a sig- nificant amount of work on the concept of hybrid management has been done. Earl provided the initial working definition of hybrid managers that has been subsequently adopted by other works. Hybrid managers are a high risk, high cost, people infrastructure that enables the organisational integration of IS and business. This integration ensures both business- consistent IS and IS-exploitative business and so hybrid managers straddle two, previously disparate, disciplines. No amount of communication, or translation bridges, between the two separate disciplines can achieve