Beneficios del juego como recurso educativo

The Russian history can be presented in a way as a succession of periods of enforced (as a rule top down) modernizations and periods of stagnation or decay in social, economic and political spheres. A number of factors significantly influenced this evolution: the existence of huge, largely unpopulated territory inhabited by multinational multi-religion ethnos; permanent external threats and frequent internal

CHAPTER III

THE RUSSIAN CIVIL SERVICE: EVOLUTION, STATUS AND

REFORM CAPACITY

3.1 Introduction

This chapter incorporates an analysis of the Russian civil service system and its capacity for reform. The methodology applied herein has been presented and explained in the previous chapter.

Particular attention in the chapter is paid to the study of institutional environment and historical development of the Russian state administration. We proceed from the premise that “historical and contemporary comparison must always take into account the context in which specific phenomena occur. Studying development over time, juridical, political, economic, social, cultural and even geographical conditions must be part of the analysis. If we want to compare specific administrative arrangements in time and place, it is only by reference to these contexts that we can appreciate the contingency of events” (Raadschelders & Rutgers, 1996: 92).

First, we trace the development of the Russian state and its administration since the formation of the Moscow princedom and the unified Russian state in the 10-14th centuries. Then, we study peculiarities of the constitutional order and political system in Russia, economic development in the 1990s, including repercussions of privatization. Afterwards, evolution of the Russian civil service during the post-communist period is analyzed with particular accent on the issues of legal framework, political-administrative relations, HR management, education and training.

Further, we examine the existing administrative traditions and culture, prevailing in civil service ethical standards and the extent of accountability of civil servants. This is followed by an overview of the relations between civil service and civil society and estimation of resources available for implementing civil service reform. The analysis culminates with conclusions regarding key problems and constraints in the development of the Russian civil service and an overall assessment of its reform capacity.

Most of the information and data provided in this chapter covers the period from the early 1990s till mid 2000s, whereas overview of the recent changes in the Russian civil service is given in the following chapter.

3.2 Evolution of the Russian State and its Administration

The Russian history can be presented in a way as a succession of periods of enforced (as a rule top down) modernizations and periods of stagnation or decay in social, economic and political spheres. A number of factors significantly influenced this evolution: the existence of huge, largely unpopulated territory inhabited by multinational multi-religion ethnos; permanent external threats and frequent internal

conflicts; and the nature of the relationships within communes that were the basic element of social organization in Russia in the times of monarchy.

The state bureaucracy has been one of the leading actors in Russian history and played a decisive role particularly during its crucial moments including the periods of sweeping reforms. The process of the evolution of the Russian bureaucracy deserves special attention because it is precisely here that we can find the origins of many of its present day features and peculiarities.1

The Kievan Rus

Civil servants in their very primitive form appeared on the territory of Russia as early as the 9-10th centuries. Around that time the southern and northern princedoms of the Slavs, situated on a huge territory from the Baltic Sea to the Black Sea, were united by Prince Oleg, who in A.D.880 conquered Kiev and made the city his capital. At that time the Russian state (Kievan Rus) consisted of principalities loyal to Prince Oleg and to his successors.

With the appearance of a unified Russian state the need for the Sovereign and his closest circles to have a group of subordinates, who would assist them in running the state, became more than evident. Therefore, apart from servants who performed purely personal (hunters, cooks, housekeepers, etc.) and military functions, there gradually emerged servants responsible for broader tasks - tributes registration, arbitration of disputes, maintaining relations with neighbouring countries - although these servants were still considered personal servants of a ruler. In 988, Grand Duke Vladimir introduced Christianity to Russia. An attempt to create a comprehensive system of laws was made by Princess Olga (10th century). In executing governance Russian Princes discussed most important decisions at the meetings with their retainers (boyars), prominent warriors and most respected and wealthy citizens. Later these meetings led to a special advisory council (duma). Rivalry between the principalities never ceased and in the 12th century the country disintegrated. From that time on the Moscow principality grew in size and significance and gradually started to play a central role among all other principalities.

Introduction of Christianity contributed to further legitimization of Russian Dukes (Sovereigns), who in compliance with Byzantine tradition were presented as Holy nominees empowered by the Lord not only to organise defence against external threats, but also manage internal affairs and maintain public order.

The Tatar-Mongol Domination and Strengthening of the Moscow Princedom

The invasion by the Tatar-Mongols in the 13th century had a great impact on the development of the principalities and the whole Russian state. The subsequent rule of the Golden Horde cut Russia off from the outside world for more than two centuries.

It is interesting to note, that two northern princedoms - Novgorod and Pskov managed to preserve their independence in the face of the Mongols’ invasion. They established virtually a republican state of governance. Novgorod princes were elected

1_{Sources of information: www.russia.net/history, www.pts.mipt.ru,} www.studyrussian.com/history.html

conflicts; and the nature of the relationships within communes that were the basic element of social organization in Russia in the times of monarchy.

The state bureaucracy has been one of the leading actors in Russian history and played a decisive role particularly during its crucial moments including the periods of sweeping reforms. The process of the evolution of the Russian bureaucracy deserves special attention because it is precisely here that we can find the origins of many of its present day features and peculiarities.1

The Kievan Rus

Civil servants in their very primitive form appeared on the territory of Russia as early as the 9-10th centuries. Around that time the southern and northern princedoms of the Slavs, situated on a huge territory from the Baltic Sea to the Black Sea, were united by Prince Oleg, who in A.D.880 conquered Kiev and made the city his capital. At that time the Russian state (Kievan Rus) consisted of principalities loyal to Prince Oleg and to his successors.

With the appearance of a unified Russian state the need for the Sovereign and his closest circles to have a group of subordinates, who would assist them in running the state, became more than evident. Therefore, apart from servants who performed purely personal (hunters, cooks, housekeepers, etc.) and military functions, there gradually emerged servants responsible for broader tasks - tributes registration, arbitration of disputes, maintaining relations with neighbouring countries - although these servants were still considered personal servants of a ruler. In 988, Grand Duke Vladimir introduced Christianity to Russia. An attempt to create a comprehensive system of laws was made by Princess Olga (10th century). In executing governance Russian Princes discussed most important decisions at the meetings with their retainers (boyars), prominent warriors and most respected and wealthy citizens. Later these meetings led to a special advisory council (duma). Rivalry between the principalities never ceased and in the 12th century the country disintegrated. From that time on the Moscow principality grew in size and significance and gradually started to play a central role among all other principalities.

Introduction of Christianity contributed to further legitimization of Russian Dukes (Sovereigns), who in compliance with Byzantine tradition were presented as Holy nominees empowered by the Lord not only to organise defence against external threats, but also manage internal affairs and maintain public order.

The Tatar-Mongol Domination and Strengthening of the Moscow Princedom

The invasion by the Tatar-Mongols in the 13th century had a great impact on the development of the principalities and the whole Russian state. The subsequent rule of the Golden Horde cut Russia off from the outside world for more than two centuries.

It is interesting to note, that two northern princedoms - Novgorod and Pskov managed to preserve their independence in the face of the Mongols’ invasion. They established virtually a republican state of governance. Novgorod princes were elected

1_{Sources of information: www.russia.net/history, www.pts.mipt.ru,} www.studyrussian.com/history.html

by citizens for a fixed period of time. The power of a prince was restricted by special agreements. All issues of great importance were solved at gatherings (vyeche) of citizens. That was in fact the first attempt to introduce elements of legitimacy of governance in Russia.

In 1380 by the decisive battle on the river Don, Prince Dimity defeated the Mongols. However, it was not until 1480 that Moscow was strong enough to throw off the Mongol’s yoke. Russia became again a centralised state in late 15th century under the rule of Ivan III. During his reign the boyars (landed aristocracy) retained their overall influential role in the management of state affairs. Seniority among the boyars depended on the family history of service to the court and on landownership. Ivan III also opened membership of this elite group to anyone who held a high administrative post. In 1547 his grandson Ivan IV (The Terrible) was crowned the first tsar of all Russia and his power became absolute.

The Reign of Ivan the Terrible

The establishment of state administration in Russia as a distinct structure acting in line with certain norms and rules occurred during the 16th century in the reigns of Ivan III, Vasily III and Ivan IV. ‘Prikazy’, special organs of governance and control were established and organised along functional and territorial lines. There were prikazy responsible for search of criminals, for relations with other countries, for state finances, for mail and transportation, etc., as well as those in charge of different regions of Russia. New entrants to prikazy were recruited basically from two sources; either from princes’ ex-warriors and personal servants or from the families of noble landlords (boyars).

Soon a true bureaucratic style developed in the prikazy with rigid vertical subordination and strict observance of instructions and orders in horizontal communications. A general rule was followed, such that the more noble a man was, the higher post he could get in the administrative structure. Regional and local reform at that time introduced elements of self-governance by citizens (zemskiye and gubskiye izby).

In his struggle against the influence of the feudal aristocracy (boyars), Ivan the Terrible confiscated much of their property and land, granting it to those who served him. These beneficiaries gradually formed a new social group or nobility (dvoryanstvo). In his late period of rule, Ivan IV established a regime of extreme terror, which brought the country to a state of almost total political and economic ruin.

The Rule of Peter the Great

After the so-called ‘time of troubles’ (most of the 17th century) Peter I (the Great), one of Russia’s most enlightened and controversial rulers, assumed the throne in 1696. As a young man he had spent two years in Western Europe (England, Holland, Sweden, Prussia) learning, among other things, state administration practices. Subsequently he became determined to carry out sweeping reforms in Russia and to extricate the country from its isolation.

Unlike his predecessors, Peter the Great admired and respected the ideas and culture of Western Europe. The first reforms of the Russian state administration

occurred during his reign. Peter the Great adopted a concept of the enlightened

despot who served the state. During his rule boyars lost their privileged position.

by citizens for a fixed period of time. The power of a prince was restricted by special agreements. All issues of great importance were solved at gatherings (vyeche) of citizens. That was in fact the first attempt to introduce elements of legitimacy of governance in Russia.

In 1380 by the decisive battle on the river Don, Prince Dimity defeated the Mongols. However, it was not until 1480 that Moscow was strong enough to throw off the Mongol’s yoke. Russia became again a centralised state in late 15th century under the rule of Ivan III. During his reign the boyars (landed aristocracy) retained their overall influential role in the management of state affairs. Seniority among the boyars depended on the family history of service to the court and on landownership. Ivan III also opened membership of this elite group to anyone who held a high administrative post. In 1547 his grandson Ivan IV (The Terrible) was crowned the first tsar of all Russia and his power became absolute.

The Reign of Ivan the Terrible

The establishment of state administration in Russia as a distinct structure acting in line with certain norms and rules occurred during the 16th century in the reigns of Ivan III, Vasily III and Ivan IV. ‘Prikazy’, special organs of governance and control were established and organised along functional and territorial lines. There were prikazy responsible for search of criminals, for relations with other countries, for state finances, for mail and transportation, etc., as well as those in charge of different regions of Russia. New entrants to prikazy were recruited basically from two sources; either from princes’ ex-warriors and personal servants or from the families of noble landlords (boyars).

Soon a true bureaucratic style developed in the prikazy with rigid vertical subordination and strict observance of instructions and orders in horizontal communications. A general rule was followed, such that the more noble a man was, the higher post he could get in the administrative structure. Regional and local reform at that time introduced elements of self-governance by citizens (zemskiye and gubskiye izby).

In his struggle against the influence of the feudal aristocracy (boyars), Ivan the Terrible confiscated much of their property and land, granting it to those who served him. These beneficiaries gradually formed a new social group or nobility (dvoryanstvo). In his late period of rule, Ivan IV established a regime of extreme terror, which brought the country to a state of almost total political and economic ruin.

The Rule of Peter the Great

After the so-called ‘time of troubles’ (most of the 17th century) Peter I (the Great), one of Russia’s most enlightened and controversial rulers, assumed the throne in 1696. As a young man he had spent two years in Western Europe (England, Holland, Sweden, Prussia) learning, among other things, state administration practices. Subsequently he became determined to carry out sweeping reforms in Russia and to extricate the country from its isolation.

Unlike his predecessors, Peter the Great admired and respected the ideas and culture of Western Europe. The first reforms of the Russian state administration

occurred during his reign. Peter the Great adopted a concept of the enlightened

Aristocratic origin was no longer taken into account when considering appointments to high level posts in state administration. Instead length of service, qualification, performance (for the first time) and loyalty to the sovereign counted.

In 1722 Peter I approved a Table of Ranks which introduced 14 ranks of state service and spelled out in detail its order and conditions. This was the first comprehensive legal document that created a sound basis for the development of the professional state administration in Russia. In preparing this document his experience of other countries, e.g. England, Denmark, Prussia, Sweden, the Netherlands was carefully analysed. The Table of Ranks introduced clear division between military and civil (public) service and imposed compulsory lifelong public service on the nobility. From that time onwards service to the monarch required appropriate education and provided for, although on a limited scale, ennoblement of commoners. During this period the state apparatus became more professional and specialised, but at the same time less flexible and more oriented towards meeting its own corporate interests. The hierarchical structure of governance, totally subordinated to the Emperor (Tsar), included the Senate (the highest organ of central governance), Collegia (displaced prikazy) and Governors in provinces (gubernyi). Peter the Great defined the distribution of authority, responsibility and functions within the administrative apparatus and forced public servants to work in accordance with state laws, standard norms and rules. It is interesting that according to a decree signed by Peter I on 17 December 1722, violation of state laws by a civil servant would immediately entail death sentence “regardless of his/her merit and record of service” (Collection of Laws of the Russian Empire, 1830).

The Period of Enlightenment

Two important processes dominated in Russia in the 18th century - territorial expansion southward, eastward and westward and cultural westernization of the Russian elites. This period is known as the period of ‘enlightened absolutism’. Catherine II (the Great) (1762-1796) tried in particular to promote the formation of a civil society in Russia. Though many of her ideas fell short of changing the existing practice, she did lay the foundations for subsequent reforms in the next century.

Catherine II continued Peter the Great's reforms of the Russian state, further increasing central control over the provinces and contributing to the resurgence of the Russian nobility. The latter received expanded rights and authority, were no longer required to serve the central government, but took over most government functions in the provinces.

Different social groups at that time attempted to introduce constitutionalism, to abolish favouritism and to enforce respect to the rule of law. This largely failed because of divisions among the nobility, its dependence on service to the ruler and fear of power being delegated to impersonal institutions. One of the remarkable developments concerning the state bureaucracy at that time (mid 1760’s) was introduction of fixed permanent remuneration to civil servants of all categories and granting the right for pension after 35 years of service. In accordance with the decree of Catherine II (1763), in performing their duties civil servants should be guided by “needs and benefits of the state”.

In spite of these improvements the majority of the Russian civil servants as in many other countries were forced to extract rent from the exercise of their duties, since the government paid them fees below even subsistence level.

Aristocratic origin was no longer taken into account when considering appointments to high level posts in state administration. Instead length of service, qualification,