Bibliografía

Immigrant status is defined using country of birth. Country of birth is a question asked at each census from 1971 to 2011 and is self-reported by those who complete the census form. While there is some variation in categories over time and the number of answers expands at each census, country of birth can be standardised across censuses. For each census, country of birth is categorised to: England and Wales, Scotland, Republic of Ireland, Northern Ireland, India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Jamaica, Other Caribbean, East and South Africa, West and Central Africa, China, Other Asia, Western Europe, Eastern Europe and the Rest of the World. In relation to migration history in England and Wales (section 1.3), the analysis includes the main post-war Commonwealth immigrant populations (India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Jamaica) but groupings were created when the size of the sample did not permit the analysis of individual countries. Appendix A shows the countries available at each census, how the countries were categorised into the above groups and the top five sending countries for each group (for groups composed of more than one country). For people present at just one census, the country of birth reported at that census is used. For those present at multiple censuses, the modal country of birth is used. For example, an LS member who is present at the 1971, 1981 and 1991 censuses who selects e.g. India at at least two censuses is assigned India as their definitive country of birth.

This method assigned a country of birth to over 99% of the sample. Remaining people (6,200) were classed as tied e.g. an LS member present from 1971 to 2001 who specified Jamaica at the 1971 and 1981 censuses but England and Wales in 1991 and 2001 is tied. The number of ties could be reduced by investigating cases to see why people had tied and reassigning them based on certain rules. As a general rule, when ties resulted from a combination of England and Wales and a foreign country, the latter was assigned to maximise the number of immigrants available for analysis. If a country of birth was imputed in 2001 and the tie was a result of this imputed country and a country specified at another census (which was not imputed), the country reported by the LS member was assigned. Bangladesh only gained dependence in 1971 (Connolly and White, 2006). As a result, at the 1971 census it was part of a combined category with Pakistan. This led to ties between this category in 1971 and later selections of Pakistan or Bangladesh. Similarly, at the 1971 and 1981 censuses some LS members born in the Republic of Ireland or Northern Ireland only answered Ireland. This led to ties between this category and later selections of Republic of Ireland or Northern Ireland. In both of these cases, LS members

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were assigned their later answers, when people were able to, or chose to specify a more detailed answer.

The best way to define the descendants of immigrants is by combining country of birth with ethnicity. Ethnicity was first asked at census in England and Wales in 1991. Country of birth is aggregated to a binary (0=born in England and Wales and 1=born abroad). Ethnic group is standardised to the 1991 census definition of ethnicity; although new categories have become available (particularly between the 1991 and 2001 censuses) at subsequent censuses, it is not possible to track back new ethnic categories offered by later censuses for individuals who have died in the intercensal period (who resultantly did not fill in a census form). The tick box categories originally offered at the 1991 census were White, Indian, Pakistani, Bangladeshi, Black Caribbean, Black African, Chinese, Black Other and Any Other Ethnic Group. A combination of written descriptions, together with multiple ticking of boxes on census forms led to the derivation of the mixed groups: Black and White and Asian and White (CeLSIUS, 2013).

The combination of country of birth and ethnic group facilitates the distinction of ethnic minorities who are born outside of England and Wales (and Scotland, Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland) (immigrants), and those from ethnic minorities born in England and Wales (descendants). Ethnicity is a fluid and changeable concept (Bhopal, 1999) and unlike country of birth, is not a fixed characteristic during a person’s life (Simpson et al., 2012). Consequently, for ties, the ethnic group selected by the LS member most recently is taken because newer categories may better identify with family background (Simpson et al., 2012). Ethnicity is an unstable concept with 2% of people changing their ethnicity between 1991 and 2001 and 4% between 2001 and 2011 in the UK (Simpson et al., 2012). The first seven groups listed in the above paragraph are stable enough for analysis over time (Simpson et al., 2012). There are also two other ways to define descendants of immigrants. The first, using parents’ and LS member’s country of birth in 1971 is limited to the 1971 sample and census definition of country of birth (parents’ country of birth was only asked at the 1971 census). The second, taking new births and/or children under the age of 16-years (where household information could be used to identify descendants of immigrants) would have created a very young sample (maximum age 57-years in 2012) and it is unlikely that there would have been enough deaths for a robust analysis.

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Table 1.1 shows the top ten non-UK countries of birth for the population in England and Wales for the censuses covered by the LS (1971, 1981, 1991, 2001 and 2011) using complete census data. Table 1.1 shows the size of the populations by country of birth and their change in rank over time (under the Pos column) (i.e. we can see that Pakistan was raised one position to third between 1971 and 1981). Table 1.2 also shows the top ten non-UK countries of birth for the population in England and Wales using the ONS LS 1% sample. The Pos column in Table 1.2 is different to Table 1.1 in that it shows the change in position of the country relative to its position in Table 1.1. The purpose of this is to compare, given that the LS is a 1% sample, the rank of the top ten non-UK countries of birth to full census data. In the LS (Table 1.2), as for the census data (Table 1.1), Ireland is the largest non-UK country of birth until 2011, when India becomes the largest. The same major non-UK countries consistently feature in the top ten and the order of countries remains similar, particularly for the top five countries at each census.

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Table 1.1. Top ten non-UK countries of birth in England and Wales 1971-2011 from ONS Census data.

Table 1.2. Top ten non-UK countries of birth in England and Wales 1971-2011 from ONS LS data.

Country Size Pos Country Size Pos Country Size Pos Country Size Pos Country Size Pos

1 Ireland 676,000 = Ireland 580,000 = Ireland 570,000 = Ireland 473,000 = India 694,000 ↑1

2 India 313,000 = India 383,000 = India 400,000 = India 456,000 = Poland 579,000

3 Jamaica 171,000 = Pakistan182,000 ↑1 Pakistan225,000 = Pakistan 308,000 = Pakistan 482,000 =

4 Germany148,000 = Germany170,000 = Germany202,000 = Germany244,000 = Ireland 407,000 ↓3

5 Pakistan*136,000 = Jamaica 164,000 ↓2 Jamaica 142,000 = Bangladesh153,000 ↑3 Germany274,000 ↓1

6 Poland 104,000 = USA 106,000 ↑2 USA 131,000 = Jamaica 146,000 ↓1 Bangladesh212,000 ↓1

7 Italy103,000 = Kenya 100,000 ↑3 Kenya 111,000 = USA 144,000 ↓1 Nigeria 191,000

8 USA 100,000 = Italy 93,000 ↓1 Bangladesh104,000 South Africa 132,000 South Africa 191,000 =

9 Cyprus 72,000 = Poland 88,000 ↓3 Italy 87,000 ↓1 Kenya 127,000 ↓2 USA 177,000 ↓2

10 Kenya 58,000 = Cyprus 83,000 ↓1 Cyprus 77,000 = Italy102,000 ↓1 Jamaica 160,000 ↓4

Note: Position is relative to position at previous census

*For both tables Pakistan and Bangladesh are combined in 1971

1971 1981 1991 2001 2011

Country Size Pos Country Size Pos Country Size Pos Country Size Pos Country Size Pos

1 Ireland 8,116 = Ireland 9,093 = Ireland 8,722 = Ireland 7,162 = India 11,305 =

2

India India 4,999 = 6,634 India= India 6,917 = 7,002 = Pakistan 7,541 ↑1

3 Pakistan* Pakistan 2,582 ↑2 Pakistan3,452 = Pakistan 3,963 = 4,603 = Ireland 6,351 ↑1

4

Jamaica Jamaica 2,127 ↓1 Germany2,022 ↑1 Germany 2,158 = 2,376 = Poland 5,797 ↓2

5

Poland 1,828 ↑1 Germany Bangladesh1,837 ↓1 Bangladesh 1,969 ↑3 2,276 = Bangladesh 3,889 ↑1

6 Germany Poland 1,569 ↓2 Jamaica1,465 ↑3 Jamaica 1,697 ↓1 1,446 = Germany 2,692 ↓1

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Cyprus Cyprus 1,242 ↑2 USA1,296 ↑3 U.S.A 1,435 ↓1 1,416 = Nigera 2,077 = 8

Italy Kenya 1,153 ↓1 Kenya1,257 ↓1 Kenya 1,363 ↓1 1,382 ↑1 USA 1,854 ↑1

9

USSR USA 811 Cyprus1,164 ↓3 South Africa 1,117 ↑1 1,267 ↓1 China 1,829

10

USA 784 Italy ↓2 Poland1,016 ↓2 Italy 1,095 1,006 = South Africa 1,810 ↓2

Source: author's calculations based on ONS LS

Note: Position of countries is relative their position at the same census in Table 1.1

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