Spain and Italy have been selected as they present relevant similarities in terms of climate vulnerabilities, urban configurations, institutional architecture (based on four levels of government –central or national government, regions, provinces and cities) and degree of devolution to the local tiers. The analysis is two-fold:
1) Analysis of multi-level governance regarding climate change. Here, we compiled and analysed climate policies and collaborative instruments and actions that were developed by different tiers of government in order to induce multi-level collaboration for climate action. The main sources used are: (i) institutional and legislative documents, scientific and grey literature and (ii) email exchange, conversations and interviews to experts and stakeholders (see De Gregorio et al., 2014 for further details in the document selection).
2) Understanding urban climate action. The analysis focused on a sample of 32 Italian and 26 Spanish cities that are listed in the Eurostat (2013) Urban Audit (UA)database (Figure 3.4.1).
This work uses the method described in Reckien at al. (this volume) and Reckien et al. (2014) and extends it by including mitigation and mitigation-related and adaptation and adaptation-related plans (see Olazabal et al., 2014 for further details).
Figure 3.4.1 Italian and Spanish cities analysed.
3 ClimatepolicyandmultilevelgovernanceinItalyandSpain
3.1 ClimatepolicyandmultilevelgovernanceinItaly
Italy is organised in four governmental tiers: National Government, regions, provinces and municipalities. The institutional system of the country assigns to the 20 existing regions a status that enables them to enact laws that regulate the governmental action of the provinces and municipalities.
In this sense the literature considers that Italy has assumed a government form typical of the federal systems, where each region develops legislation in those matters not reserved to the federal state (Lefèvre, 2012; Casetti, 2004).Within this general framework the regions and the local governments have assumed important competences since the end of the 1990s. Energy and environmental issues have been transferred to the regions. This fact, together with the regional strength in terms of financial resources, has resulted in the regional level playing a pivotal role in the national climate policy.
The climate change policy of the country has been developed within the framework of the mentioned transfer of government responsibility and legislative power to the regional, provincial and municipal governments. It is resulting in the introduction and consolidation of a policy area that, as in many other EU countries, is currently taking form assuming inertias and being influenced from traditional policy styles and outlooks of key policy makers (Marchetti, 1996). It is recognized that the National Government in Italy has delayed action regarding climate change (Marchetti, 1996) compared with other industrialized countries. This has negatively affected the action developed by the lower levels of government (OECD, 2013).
As a first explicit step to develop a national climate policy, in 1994 Italy approved the National Plan for the Containment of CO2 Emissions. Three years later, in 1997, the country signed the Kyoto Protocol, committing to reduce its greenhouse gas emissions by 6.5% below the base-year levels (1990) over the first commitment period, 2008-2012. The overall responsibility for meeting the targets agreed in the Kyoto Protocol is with the National Government, and there are no specific
legislative arrangements and enforcement/administrative procedures at the regional level to meet those. However, considering that in other sectors, such as the energy production and transport, the regions have legislative powers, a number of policies relevant to greenhouse gas emission reduction have been enacted at the regional level.
One year after the adoption of the Kyoto Protocol the National Plan for the reduction of GHG emissions was approved. The Plan abandoned the sectoral approach of the 1994 Plan, giving place to a concerted effort of all Ministries and other administrative authorities relevant for the achievement of GHG reduction. The next National Plan for the Reduction of greenhouse gas emissions (2003-2010) (Ministero dell'Ambiente e Tutela del Territorio, 2002) was approved in 2002 and has the main objective of achieving the country’s commitment under the Kyoto Protocol defining a set of policies and measures mainly aimed at increasing energy efficiency and fostering the use of renewable energy sources.
Also in 2002 the Italian National Climate Change Strategy was approved (CIPE deliberation 123/2002), aiming at increasing energy efficiency and the use of renewable energy. It also established an inter-Ministerial Technical Committee (CTE) to monitor the emissions trend and the implementation of policies identified in the national strategy, and to identify further measures to meet the Kyoto Protocol target. The transversal nature of the CTE points it out as a relevant instrument to improve interdepartmental governance at the Central Government level and to mainstream climate change into the relevant national policy fields.
Italy has recently drafted a new National Plan to reduce greenhouse gases (CIPE resolution n. 17 of 8 March 2013) that aims to prepare a pathway towards a decarbonisation economy in compliance with the European 2020 policy and the Energy Roadmap 2050. In this plan, Italy commits to contribute to the achievement of the EU’s decarbonisation objectives: a 25% GHG reduction by 2020 with respect to 1990 level, 40% by 2030, 60% by 2040, and 80% by 2050.
In February 2012 Italy also started the development of a National Strategy for Climate Change Adaptation (NAS). At present a draft of the National Strategy is available to public consultation until the end of December 2013. Even if Italy does not have its own adaptation strategy yet some adaptation measures have been implemented in the context of natural hazards prevention, environmental protection, sustainable management of natural resources and health protection. The mentioned legislation and policy instruments developed by the National Government do not specifically address cities as relevant actors in climate policy. The Italian scenario shows that the climate action developed by the Central Government has not included a line of policy oriented to enhance climate initiatives at the local level nor that it has launched collaborative arenas where national climate action could be discussed.
Concerning the regions, many regional laws have been promulgated in Italy to govern territorial energy planning with detailed measures on renewable energy sources, energy saving of buildings and rational use of energy. Less emphasis is generally given to the opportunities offered by the transport sector in reducing emissions (Gargiulo et al., 2012). Moreover, in recent years more and
(Piani Energetico Ambientali Regionali - PEARs). To date, all regions have approved their PEAR (ENEA, 2011).
Most of Italian regions have not developed yet regional climate change (mitigation or/and adaption) plans. As a result they have concentrated their action on energy planning (with important consequences in terms of mitigation measures) but not on the development of holistic climate plans, which have resulted in the lack of guidance for the stakeholders (institutional and non-institutional) that operate in their territory in those policy fields in which climate change can be mainstreamed.
The Italian Local Agenda 21 Association together with the National Association of Italian Municipalities (ANCI), the Union of Italian Provinces (UPI),and the regions have recently developed the “Charter of cities and territories commitments to climate protection” aiming at becoming a reference for spatial policies (Coordinamento Agende 21 Locali, 2009). In this document the municipalities, provinces and regions of Italy declare their intention to adopt integrated policies and actions for adaptation and mitigation of climate change acting on the basis of an integrated approach covering different fields, such as urban planning, energy planning, urban and metropolitan mobility, sustainable management of public facilities, etc. The objective is to reduce at least by 20% the greenhouse gas emissions and increase the balance within social, environmental and economic development of the territory. Signatories of the Charter commit themselves to carry out (within one year after signing) a Climate Plan that provides mitigation and adaptation actions.
This Charter constitutes the most explicit way in which regions and provinces have recognized the importance of working with the municipalities to address climate change in their respective territories.
The review of the government activity developed by provinces in Italy in the field of climate change shows that they are playing a relevant role to support medium and small cities in energy/climate planning and to transfer the knowledge on climate action. Some provinces have developed their own specific climate strategy (mitigation and/or adaptation) and most of them are acting as coordinators for energy and climate policies at local scale.
3.2 ClimatepolicyandmultilevelgovernanceinSpain
Spain is governed under a parliamentary monarchy with a high level of decentralization and devolution to the regional governments of the 17 regions (Autonomous Communities, AC hereafter) and the municipalities. There are four levels of government: the Central Government, the AC, the provinces and the municipalities. The Constitution guarantees the autonomy of the last three levels, but their autonomy is not of the same nature: on the one hand provinces and municipalities are local tiers of government with administrative autonomy, which basically means that they are responsible for the development of secondary legislation and the management of urban public services. On the other hand Autonomous Communities have real political autonomy, with legislative power on a relevant number of issues guaranteed by the Constitution (Parkinson et al., 2012).
Spain ratified the Kyoto Protocol in 2002, committing itself to limit greenhouse gas emissions by 15%
if compared to 1990 for the period 2008-2012. Since then the Central Government started to develop the country’s climate change policy implementing, particularly from 2004, a collaborative vision through the creation of various arenas of dialogue and collaboration. It aimed to assure the involvement of all relevant tiers of government in the fulfilment of the Spanish climate change objectives. The different arenas have different, particular tasks and achieved a relevant role in supporting the Central Government regarding climate decision-making. Meanwhile, the Central
Government has approved a number of documents and strategies that have contributed to set the basis on which the institutional climate governance approach has been taking form. In 2007 it passed the Spanish Strategy on Climate Change and Clean Energy (EECCEL) as part of the Spanish Sustainable Development Strategy (EEDS). One of its objectives was to provide the reference of coordination for the climate change policies of the State, the regions and the cities.
The National Plan for Adaptation to Climate Change (MMA, 2006) has been instrumental in the development of climate adaptation action in the country so far. This instrument responded to the high vulnerability of the Spanish territory to the adverse effects of climate change by providing a reference framework for the coordination of the Public Administrations in the activities of impact assessment, vulnerability studies, and adaptation to climate change. In order to give place to administrative coordination regarding adaptation to climate change, the Working Group on Impacts and Adaptation was created in 2007. The main aim of the instrument is the coordination and integration of the adaptation action of the Central Administration, the AC and the local level.
In 2005 the Government created the Spanish Network of Cities for Climate (RECC) with the objective of fostering the development of local policies to fight climate change through the adoption of 5 main axis of action: mobility, building, urban planning, energy and waste. The network was subsequently integrated in the vision and objectives of the EECCEL of 2007. The Central Government has also developed a policy to promote the development of mitigation measures by cities through the provision of funding to implement previously defined policies, the most relevant instrument has been the Energy Saving and Efficiency Strategy Spanish Action Plan (E4), approved in 2005 and implemented with a high level of involvement of the AC.
In Spain the AC are implementing a relevant number of mitigation measures, which were formerly adopted by the Central Government for diverse sectors7. The measures are adapted to the particular circumstances of the AC and, in most cases, complemented with others. Almost all the AC have formalized their climate action through the development of a climate change strategy and the creation of specific entities to deal with energy matters. The present situation shows that 16 out of the 17 Autonomous Regions have developed their climate change strategy or plan and the one left is currently developing it (Asturias). It is worth noting that most of them have approved their climate plans during the period 2007-2008 (the same in which the Central Government launched the EECCEL). They are usually mitigation plans that include in some cases adaptation measures. The review of those plans reveals that only in exceptional cases cities are enhanced to prepare their own mitigation or adaptations plans. In most cases the plans adopt a sectoral approach, providing guidelines to be implemented in different fields (housing, mobility, energy, public administration, etc.) and do not ask urban areas to implement a holistic climate action, but actions in the mentioned fields.
In general, the AC understood their role within this field of policy as a shared task with the Central Government in order to fulfil the national goals. The creation of coordination arenas between the Central Government and the regions has been a relevant factor that resulted in awareness and action of most of the regions regarding this matter.
significant action is the development of networks of cities in their respective territories, with the aim of sharing knowledge and to give place to coordinate policies (RECC, without year). Even if it is not the rule, some provinces have developed their specific strategy on climate change. The role developed by the Spanish provinces can be considered relevant to foster climate action in medium and small cities.