A key challenge faced by SN research is the need to understand how and why norms of some reference groups become more influential and salient than those of others. The interest in salience is driven by a need to design tailored normative interventions for particular groups (Berkowitz, 2004). In a comprehensive review of prior research, Borsari and Carey (2001) report the use of as many as 18 different referent groups in SN research ranging from ‘your best friend’ to ‘an average student’.
The literature on norm salience is very generic in nature and focuses on norms pertaining to particular identity groups, based on gender (Lewis and Neighbors, 2004; Lewis and Neighbors, 2006b), fraternity and sorority membership (Baer et al., 1991; Baer, 1994; Larimer et al., 1997; Carter and Kahnweiler, 2000) and athletes (Thombs, 2000). For example, Lewis and Neighbors (2004) in a study involving under graduate students, evaluate perceptions of gender specific versus gender-non-specific drinking norms. The study reports that gender specific norms tend to be more salient than gender non specific norms. Lewis and Neighbors (2006b) provide empirical evidence that both men and women tend to think of the typical college student as ‘male’ when estimating peer drinking norms. In contrast, McAlaney (2007) reports that female British students interpret the typical student as being the same gender as themselves. There is also considerable research demonstrating that fraternity members often overestimate the drinking of other Greeks but correctly perceive that Greeks drink more than non-Greeks (Baer et al., 1991; Baer, 1994; Larimer et al., 1997; Carter and Kahnweiler, 2000).
It is also well documented in the literature on saliency that misperceptions increase as social distance increases (Beck and Treiman, 1996; Thombs, 2000; Borsari and Carey, 2003; Kypri and Langley, 2003; Berkowitz, 2004; Berkowitz, 2005) but social groups that are closer tend to be more influential in shaping personal behaviour (Borsari and Carey, 2003; Korcuska and Thombs, 2003). Research also indicates that the influence of a referent group on a person is also dependent on an individual’s perception of similarity between him or herself and that group (Borsari and Carey, 2003).
Most SN campaigns focus on the norms of a ‘typical student at campus’ which may or may not be a salient referent group for the population of interest. In case of latter, a SN based campaign cannot be effective (Berkowitz, 2004). From a theoretical point of view, while it is clear that proximal social groups are more influential and that evaluation of salience is imperative to the success of a campaign, in practice, the identification of these groups and their placement in the social networks of individuals remains a key challenge. One particular area of importance for SN research therefore is a better understanding of group identity and how individuals identify salient peers (McAlaney et al., 2011). When asked to report on the drinking of their close friends or typical students, how do individuals decide which friendship groups to draw from and how influential are these groups in determining personal consumption? McAlaney and colleagues (2011) in a recent review of the international development of SN approach, draw attention towards the need to address these questions regarding norm salience which represent an important theoretical weakness.
Social Network Analysis (SNA) which is a set of widely used techniques to map and study relationships in various contexts, offers a unique methodology which can be used to address
the issue of norms salience. However, the utilization of SNA in enhancing our understanding of norm salience remains an unexplored area which requires further investigation (More on this in chapter 4).
3.10 Conclusion
It is important to understand and address the drivers of unhealthy drinking habits among youngsters in order to develop appropriate policy measures to tackle the problem. Social norms represent a core construct of the research on substance use particularly alcohol consumption. SN literature demonstrates that misperceived peer drinking norms play a prominent role in influencing the drinking patterns of college students and argues that correcting these misperceptions can promote healthy behaviours. This chapter reviewed the theory and practice of SN approach by examining the empirical literature on normative perceptions and drinking behaviour. In doing so, some important theoretical and practical issues came to light which provide the impetus and direction for this research. Specifically, the review highlights three key gaps in the literature. First, it points out that SN approach is yet to be tested for its practical application in Ireland where the drinking culture is different and more permissive compared to the US. Second, it draws attention to the relatively little consideration given to the assessment of injunctive or attitudinal norms as compared to descriptive or behavioural norms in most SN studies. Third, the chapter highlights that despite pervasive interest in peer influences and college drinking; SN literature reflects a lack of clarity on how individuals conceptualize salient peer groups. While, past research on saliency has focussed on how different referent groups influence perceived norms, identifying these salient others, locating them in the social surroundings of individuals and determining their relative influence on individual behaviour
remains a challenge. Little consideration is thus given to peer-group structure. It is important that work is undertaken to accurately identify and target salient reference groups because it is an important part of the planning process of a SN campaign (Berkowitz, 2004).
Broadly speaking, the present study seeks to address the question how different types of norms and norm salience influence the drinking behaviours of college students in Ireland. In order to address these concerns, the social context of individuals has to be taken into account which is characterized by the social networks they inhabit. As mentioned in section 3.9.3, SNA offers a unique methodology to study relationships and consequently provide a better understanding of the issue of norm salience. Chapter 4 extends this discussion by introducing SNA, explaining its relevance to norm salience and reviewing related substance abuse research.
4
Literature Review: Social Network Analysis (SNA)
4.1 Introduction
As discussed in chapter 3, section 3.9.3, SN researchers have consistently drawn attention to the importance of understanding the social environments of individuals, so that SN marketing intervention efforts may benefit from focusing on the most salient peer groups corresponding to the population of interest (Berkowitz, 2004; Gorman et al., 2004; Mason et al., 2004; Berkowitz, 2005; McAlaney et al., 2011). SNA offers a way to address this concern because it facilitates studying the social context of substance use behaviours such as alcohol consumption (Ennett et al., 2006).
Social Network Analysis (SNA) is based on the idea that individuals are embedded in thick webs of social relations and that social life is created by these interactions and the patterns formed by them (Borgatti et al., 2009; Marin and Wellman, 2010). Based on the theoretical constructs of sociology, mathematical foundations of graph theory and recent developments in computing technology, it offers a unique methodology for visualizing and examining social structures and relations. The transdisciplinary nature of network science has increased its popularity and growth in diverse fields ranging from ecology and epidemiology to social sciences and business practice (Marin and Wellman, 2010).
This chapter is aimed at introducing SNA and examining how it can be useful in identifying and exploring salient peer relationships that may influence individuals’ perceptions of peer drinking and their own drinking behaviours. The chapter begins by discussing issues related to defining social networks and summarizing the history and the current state of SNA. It then
describes three principles implicit in the network theory that set it apart from attribute or group based perspectives. A description of network data, its measurement and related issues is presented next followed by a detailed discussion on the integration of SNA and norm salience. Network research conducted in the specific domain of substance use is reviewed before the chapter concludes with a discussion on specific challenges and common criticisms faced by network science. A glossary of common network terminologies is presented in appendix 9.