A number of authors have described their recommended approaches in gathering research data through the use of interviews. Kvale and Brinkmann (2009) describe seven stages of an interview investigation as thematizing, designing, interviewing, transcribing, analyzing, verifying and reporting. Rubin and Rubin (2011) outline a similar process although the stages aren’t as fixed and the sequence can change. I followed a structure proposed by Creswell (2013) as outlined below:
• Identify interviewees
• Decide on the type of interview • Confirm the recording procedures • Write the interview protocol • Pilot the protocol
• Identify a location to conduct the interviews • Write and complete the consent forms • Follow the use of good interview procedures.
3.8.1 Types of Research Interviews
An interview is a conversation, usually between two people, but one where one person, the interviewer, is seeking responses for a particular purpose from the other person, the interviewee (Gillham, 2000). The qualitative research interview is designed to explore experiences, meanings, and depth by taking a constructivist approach. This is in contrast to the quantitative interview which tends to be more structured, for example researchers may tick off pre- determined responses to a list of structured questions for later analysis using quantitative methods (Warren, 2002). There are also different levels of formality and relationships with qualitative research interviews, which often probe much deeper, take longer, and which often require the development of rapport and a relationship between interviewer and participant.
3.8.1.1 The qualitative research interview
One advantage of the qualitative interview is that it is more flexible and can be tailored by the researcher to specific lines of enquiry. Researchers can introduce follow-up questions to probe emerging themes in a way that more structured interviews or questionnaires do not allow (Robson, 2011). Another important element of qualitative research is that the researcher is the key instrument, that is the researcher in person collects the data. This means that the researcher can identify non-verbal cues and follow-up with a line of questioning that has the potential to capture rich, and unique data that would otherwise be missed when using other forms of data collection. On the other
hand, there can be problems with the use of the qualitative research interview. They require trained interviewers who can pick up on verbal and non-verbal cues, they are time-consuming to conduct, transcribe and analyse, and generate large quantities of data that can be difficult to analyse.
Qualitative interviews should be interviewee-focused with interviewees doing most of the talking and encouraged to go ‘off-topic’ (Bryman, 2012). Individual qualitative interviews can be divided into unstructured and semi-structured. Researchers using unstructured interviews may only prepare a few prompts or ask one open question at the start of the interview. The researcher’s role is to guide naturally occurring conversations with flexibility, depending on what emerges (Cousin, 2009).
The semi-structured interview is structured around a set of themes in an
interview guide (Bryman, 2012), which the researcher uses to facilitate the
interview, usually by formulating questions. The interviewer can alter or add to these prepared questions depending on the ‘flow’ of the interview (Cousin, 2009; May, 2011). Usually the interviewer will consistently ask all the questions on the interview guide to provide a degree of structure; however, there is more opportunity for the interviewer to ask probing, follow-up questions to delve deeper, for example to explore why a subject feels as they do. The interviews are still predominantly interviewee-focussed but allow some structure to the discussion, that has been prepared in advanced and is aligned with the research questions. For this reason I have used semi-structured interviews to collect data. Robson (2011) suggests that the interview should last for between 30 and 60 minutes and most of the interviews fitted within this category.
A focus group is a technique for interviewing more than one person, usually at least 4 people, at a time. It is essentially a group interview, however Bryman (2012) suggests that there are differences between the two terms. Group interviews might be seen as a way of saving time and money by interviewing multiple participants; however, the focus group researcher is interested in how individuals respond to a question or topic specifically as members of a group rather than as individuals. In addition the researcher may often want to consider how group members respond to each other’s views. The researcher then tries
to build a view, not just from what is said but also from the interactions that take place between the group members (Bryman, 2012).
3.8.2 Data Analysis and Representation
Creswell (2013) suggests that data analysis consists of a number of stages. Initially data should be prepared and organised, then reduced to themes through the process of coding and coding condensation, and finally represented through appropriate means such as a written discussion, figures or tables. Kvale and Brinkmann (2009) argue for six steps of analysis, three of which take place during the interview or focus group itself. As participants explain their experiences and feelings they will think and reflect in real time. This may then provide new interpretations and discoveries they weren’t aware of before. Finally during the interview or focus group the researcher should provide a reflective summary and interpretation of what has been described and as they have understood the discussion. This enables the participants to reflect further and confirm, amend or add to their initial explanations. The fourth step would be the transcription, organisation and textual analysis followed by member validation, possibly by re-interview, and finally capturing any action that might have taken place as a result of the initial interview.