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150 UNIT 13: READING IN CONTENT AREAS

13.1 Introduction

151 supporting information. When features recur in predictable patterns, they help the reader to find information and make connections. Readers who understand how to use these features spend less time unlocking the text, and have more energy to concentrate on the content. To prepare pupils to comprehend a text with the help of text structures, teachers should show them the purpose of text structures. For example, the purpose of the chapter title in a social studies, science, or math book is to illustrate the main idea of what pupils are about to read. In contrast, the purpose of a chapter title in a novel is usually to engage the reader and entice them to keep reading. In addition to teaching pupils to notice the physical features of a text, teachers might teach pupils to recognize patterns of writing that are often contained in textbooks or other pieces of reading. Discussed below are various patterns used in writing.

a) Generalization/Principle Text Structure

Information is arranged into general statements with supporting examples. The pattern may be general-to-specific or specific-to-general. Generalizations may appear at the beginning or the end of a report, essay, summary, or article. Webs, process charts, and pyramid charts help to record the causal sequence that leads to a specific outcome.

Signal Words include; additionally, always, because of, clearly, for example, furthermore, generally, however, in conclusion, in fact, never, represents, seldom, therefore, typically, etc. To understand this feature in a text, pupils should be supported in asking and answering the following questions:

• What generalization is the author making?

• What facts, examples, statistics or reasons are used to support the generalization?

• Do the details appear in a logical order?

• Do the details support or explain the generalization?

• Why did the author choose this organizational pattern?

b) Chronological Sequence:

Such texts give a chronological list of events or actions. Details are arranged in the order in which they happen. This is often used in incident reports, biographies, news articles, procedure, instructions, or steps in a process. Visual organizers which include timelines, flowcharts, and sequence charts, help to understand this feature in a text.

Signal words include after, before, during, first, finally, following, immediately, initially, next, now, preceding, second, soon, then, third, today, until, when. To understand this feature, pupils should be supported in asking and answering the following questions:

• What sequence of events is being described?

• What are the major incidents or events?

• How are the incidents or events related?

• What happened first, second, third, etc.?

• How is the pattern revealed in the text?

• Why did the author choose this organizational pattern?

152 c) Compare/Contrast

In such texts, details are arranged to show the similarities and differences between/among two or more things (e.g. ideas, issues, concepts, topics, events, places). This pattern is used in almost all types of writing. Venn diagrams, graphs and cause/effect charts are used to illustrate the comparison. Signal words also include:

although, as well as, but, common to, compared with, either, different from, however, instead of, like, opposed to, same, similarly, similar to, unlike, yet. Pupils should be guided to use these questions:

• What is being compared?

• What is the basis for the comparison?

• What characteristics do they have in common?

• In what ways are the items different?

• Did the author make a conclusion about the comparison?

• How is the comparison organized?

• Why did the author choose this organizational pattern?

d) Spatial Order

Information and ideas are arranged in an order related to the geographic or spatial location (e.g., left to right, top to bottom, and foreground to background). This pattern is often used in descriptions, maps, diagrams and drawings to help to record spatial details. Signal words include above, across from, among, behind, beside, below, down, in front of, between, left, to the right/left, near, on top of, over, up, in the middle of, underneath. To understand this feature in a text, pupils should be supported in asking and answering the following questions:

• What specific person, place, thing or event is described?

• What details are given?

• How do the details relate to the subject?

• Does the description help you to visualize the subject?

• Why is the description important?

• Why did the author choose this organizational pattern?

e) Cause/Effect:

An explanation of various causes and their corresponding effects. Details are arranged to link a result with a series of events, showing a logical relationship between a cause and one or more effects (e.g. describe the cause first and then explain the effects, or describe the effect first and then explain the possible causes). It is sometimes called a problem/solution order or process order, and may be used in explanations, descriptions, procedures, process reports, and opinion writing. Cause-and-effect charts and fishbone diagrams can be used to illustrate the relationships. Signal words include as a result of, because, begins with, causes, consequently, due to, effects of, how, if…then, in order to, leads to, next, since so, so that, therefore, when…then. To understand this feature, pupils should be supported in asking and answering the following questions:

153

• What process, event or subject is being explained?

• What is/are the cause(s)?

• What is/are the effect(s)?

• What are the specific steps in the process?

• What is the outcome, product or end result?

• How does it work or what does it do?

• How are the causes and effects related? Is the relationship logical?

• Why did the author choose this organizational pattern?

f) Episode Pattern

This text structure discusses the ‘who, what, when, where, how, and why’ of an event.

Those elements are indicated by the following questions:

• What event is being explained or described?

• What is the setting where the event occurs?

• Who are the major figures or characters that play a part in this event?

• What are the specific incidents or events that occur? In what order do they happen?

• What caused this event?

• What effects has this event had on the people involved?

• What effects has this event had on society in general?

TEACHING/READING DIFFERENT TEXT FORMS

Teaching pupils to recognize particular text structures has an immense impact on their reading comprehension. These patterns help pupils comprehend what is most important in a text, see connections between ideas, and later apply these same text structures to their own writing. Effective literacy teachers use explicit instruction and graphic organizers to teach text structures to pupils. Graphic organizers are visual depictions of ideas and their relationships to one another. They help pupils see how ideas are organized within a text or concept. Learners can then apply this structure to their own ideas. Learners are thus better able to understand relationships between complex ideas or to arrange information to facilitate retention and recall. Through practice in reading texts and mapping the ideas with a graphic organizer, the pupils will become very familiar with text structures. Engaging with reading and writing in this active manner will lead to longer and deeper memory of the content of the writing as well.