To address the educational focus of this thesis, this chapter will now turn towards a review of code-switching research in educational contexts. Research carried out in a vast array of linguistic contexts and types of classrooms (e.g. primary, secondary, tertiary education) has established classroom code-switching as a communicative asset as it fulfils numerous pragmatic functions (Ferguson, 2003:
38). The symbolic and sequential approaches to code-switching (outlined above) have considerably influenced the various frameworks adopted in the analysis of classroom code-switching. A discussion concerning the ways in which sequential and symbolic approaches have been integrated into classroom code-switching research will be provided below and particular attention will be drawn to the specific pragmatic functions which have been attributed to the use of multiple
In their study of advanced learners of German at an English-speaking university in Canada, Liebscher and Dailey O’Cain (2005: 236) adopt a CA approach to classroom code-switching enabling them to analyse the sequential development of multilingual interactions of students and teachers. As previously outlined, a sequential analysis of code-switching is typically preoccupied with detecting the ways in which speakers locally convey meaning by juxtaposing different languages in conversation without taking into account the social evaluations associated with the various languages or various factors related to speaker identity (e.g. age, gender, attitudes etc.) (2.4.4). Liebscher and Dailey O’Cain (2005: 239) specifically focus on the ways in which learners and teachers attempt to structure their interactions through code-switching behaviour on a local level and they reveal the following pragmatic functions of classroom code-switching: thinking aloud, setting off an aside, shifting topic, attracting attention. These functions were revealed in a micro-analysis of classroom interactions without drawing on any external speaker characteristics and they can collectively be described as a signalling device helping speakers to add emphasis to their utterances and listeners to correctly interpret the intended meaning. Üstünel and Seedhouse (2005) adopt a similar approach in their investigation of code-switching in a Turkish EFL setting. In a qualitative analysis of the sequential environment of teachers’ code-switches into Turkish, Üstünel and Seedhouse (2005: 322) reveal several pragmatic functions of classroom code-switching such as giving feedback, checking comprehension, dealing with classroom discipline, providing translations etc. All of these functions are intricately linked to the context in which they appear and are not related to the social evaluations of the various languages or the speakers’ language attitudes.
The various symbolic approaches to language alternation phenomena (2.4.2 and 2.4.3) have, however, also had an impact on classroom code-switching research.
Ferguson (2003: 39) argues that a more comprehensive understanding of code-switching behaviour in educational contexts can be reached by complementing the
sequential analysis of multilingual classroom discourse with a consideration of the wider sociolinguistic context as speakers’ language attitudes are likely to have an impact on language behaviour inside the classroom.
McGlynn and Martin (2009: 137) report findings from a study of classroom code-switching in the Republic of The Gambia. While the school chosen for their study is governed by a strict ‘no vernacular’ policy, the teacher is shown to occasionally code-switch into the local languages, Mandinka and Wolof, to achieve a communicative effect. Code-switches into the vernacular are described as attempts by the teacher to reduce the level of formality and to establish himself as a member of the local community as opposed to a teacher in a higher position of power. By occasionally switching to Wolof or Mandinka, the teacher aligns himself with the pupils and their native languages. Switches into Wolof and Mandinka typically co-occur with discussions of local and cultural concepts and McGlynn and Martin (2009: 146) argue that this strategy enables the teacher to gain the pupils’ attention and trust. Similarly, Probyn (2009) in South Africa and Raschka et al. (2009: 161) in Taiwan demonstrate how teachers code-switch during classroom interactions to signal friendship, solidarity and to build rapport with students. While none of these studies disregard the sequential environment in which code-switching occurs, they take into account the social evaluations of the various languages used in classroom interactions. In other words, teachers code-switch into the vernacular or home languages of the students as these are widely associated with informality and thus teachers are able to improve their relationships with students and to achieve temporary goals such as gaining students’ trust (McGlynn & Martin, 2009: 145).
The discussion of the abovementioned studies shows that multiple functions of classroom code-switching have been established in a vast array of linguistic contexts across the world. Both sequential and symbolic analyses have led to the identification of the various functions. Ferguson (2003: 39) calls attention to the
switching which have been revealed in different studies. Similar functions are often given different labels by different authors and in an attempt to increase comparability between code-switching studies carried out in different linguistic contexts across the world Ferguson (2003: 39) proposes the following broad categorisation of functions:
– Code-switching for curriculum access
– Code-switching for management of classroom discourse – Code-switching for interpersonal relations
Code-switching for curriculum access centres around the transmission of curriculum content and is intended to help students understand subject matter and to facilitate participation in classroom activities. In addition to providing students with help in understanding and participating in learning activities, teachers code-switch for classroom management purposes. Code-code-switches fulfilling management functions consist of motivating, disciplining and praising students and/or signalling a shift of topic towards any ‘off-lesson’ concern (Ferguson, 2003: 42). Finally, in multilingual classrooms code-switching is frequently employed to build interpersonal relationships. This can help teachers to project different identities and to appear more human to students by, for example, telling jokes in the students’ native language. Ferguson’s three-fold categorisation of classroom code-switching functions encompasses both functions identified through sequential and symbolic approaches to language alternation. While topic shift or clarification functions, for example, are intricately linked to the context in which they appear, code-switches fulfilling interpersonal relationships functions often exploit the social evaluations attached to the various languages used in a given classroom interaction. The pragmatic analysis of teachers (Chapter 5) and students’ (Chapter 6) code-switching behaviour presented in this thesis will extensively exemplify several functions of classroom code-switching which are categorised under the three umbrella functions proposed by Ferguson.
2.4.8 Summary
The code-switching literature provides a wealth of studies and offers many insights into various theoretical frameworks. Different aspects of the symbolic and sequential approaches to language alternation phenomena (outlined above) have influenced code-switching research in educational contexts. The institutional nature of classrooms provides researchers with extensive control over several factors that may affect speakers’ multilingual language behaviour (e.g. number of speakers involved, topic, power relations between students and teachers).
Ferguson’s threefold categorisation of classroom code-switching for curriculum access, for the management of classroom discourse and for interpersonal relations emerges as a particularly useful framework for the analysis of multilingual classroom behaviour. The use of this framework not only enhances comparability between classroom code-switching studies carried out in different linguistic contexts, but it also enables the analyst to reveal the ways in which teachers and learners construct meanings locally (i.e. by code-switching in order to structure classroom discourse) and socially (i.e. by making use of the social evaluations of languages and by projecting language attitudes).
While academic researchers largely attribute a high degree of functionality to classroom code-switching and describe it as a communicative resource, educational authorities in many countries remain suspicious of the use of multiple languages in classroom interactions (Ferguson, 2009: 233). As previously outlined (2.3.5), the success of language planning activities is heavily dependent on the policy makers’ awareness of the attitudes of those who are directly affected by the language policies. As the domain of education is governed by official language policies in many countries, classroom code-switching research becomes closely related to language planning and policy activities. The common mismatch between academic research findings drawing positive attention to classroom code-switching and the continuing ban of code-code-switching by many education
authorities calls for a review of the various bilingual and multilingual education models that are currently in place in different contexts across the world.