2.4.1 The University o f Pennsylvania Museum excavations
Between 1964 and 1965, forty-five burial contexts [T.101-T.144] were excavated by Pritchard in the North Area of the Lower Tell [squares 17-E/K-6/8 & 16-A-5/8: see fig.
2.6]. The burials contained a minimum number of human remains belonging to 55 individuals22. The North Area measures c.1000 m2, in a grid of forty 5m squares, although only c.50% of this area was investigated archaeologically. The soundings were not consistently excavated across the entire area. Only one sounding was excavated down to EB levels and virgin soil underneath the intrusive cemetery. The majority of walls visible in the North Area plan belong to the EB occupation, although the portion of the E-W stone wall in the southeast comer was attributed to the Byzantine (?) period
(Pritchard 1985: 81). This is likely to be part of the ‘early Islamic khan’ in Tubb’s Area FF (see below).
The entire depth of silted deposits and burials overlaying the EB remains was therefore not precizely determined across the North Area, and other burials may yet be preserved in this (incompletely) excavated area. Pritchard observed that some graves were found close to the surface whilst others were c.lm below the surface (1980: 1). The majority of interments were extended and orientated W-E (i.e. head to the west). A variety of tomb- types was present, mostly consisting of simple pit graves, and also stone-lined graves, mudbrick-lined cists and jar burials [see App.D.3 for descriptions].
Pritchard divided the cemetery into three periods on the basis of chronologically diagnostic ceramic artefacts: ‘earliest’, ‘intermediate’ and ‘later’ (ibid.: 28-30). A fourth group of ‘poor burials’ is characterized by graves containing one or two vessels, partly overlapping with his ‘later period’. The remainder were assigned either to the ‘poor’ or
‘later’ groups, partly due to their lack of grave-objects, or the presence of ceramic forms attributed solely to the EIA and not to the LBA [App.C.4]. An apparent absence of burials dating to the late Iron I, Iron II, Persian, Hellenistic and Roman periods was noted by Pritchard (1980: 30). Two highly disturbed Hellenistic burials were excavated on the Lower Tell, but never published [App.C.2].
Important findings in the North Area include T.101, a large cist containing a single interment and a rich assemblage of objects, including a bronze wine-set, ivory cosmetic containers and ceramic storage vessels (Pritchard 1980: 10-14). The individual was adorned with several hundred beads, two electrum toggle-pins and plaque-pendants attached with a chain. The T.101 burial assemblage contained bronze vessels with parallels cited from LBA Cyprus and the Aegean, and was interpreted by Pritchard (1968) as evidence for a ‘Sea Peoples’ presence in the Jordan Valley. He hypothesized that metalworking specialists from the Aegean were active in the region during the 13th- 12th Centuries. This interpretation was dependent on the assumption of a cultural association between the metalwork found in T.101, and anthropoid coffin burials containing similar grave-objects at Beth Shan. The coffin burials and bronzes provided an apparent link between a Sea Peoples group, and the Biblical reference to an established metalworking industry sponsored by the Phoenician King Hiram in the Jordan Valley, during the reign of Solomon (ibid. 104; I Kings 7: 46-46). Pritchard’s theory has
since been revived and modified by Tubb in his interpretation of the double-pithos burials and bronze-working traditions at Sa’idiyeh (Tubb 1988b; 1995).
Other ‘rich’ burials in the North Area include T. 102, T. 117 and T. 119. T. 102 contained a bronze sword, bronze vessels, and a scarab-ring. Bituminous or resinous material was found coating the human remains in both T.102 and T. 117, in addition to a range of objects from Egypt, Cyprus, the Aegean and local Palestinian forms. Pritchard interpreted these burials as either foreigners - “who wished to be buried with articles to which they had been accustomed to in their homeland”, or local persons - “who were affluent enough to afford the more costly items which had been imported... ” (1980: 21).
The presence of locally produced handleless jars, V-shaped and rounded bowls in several burials including the so-called ‘bitumen tombs’ - are forms with close parallels from Egypt and sites associated with the Egyptian administration in Canaan in the 19^-20^
Dynasties.
Most burials in the North Area did not yield the same degree of wealth and diversity in grave-assemblages as T.101, T.102, T.l 17 and T.119. Ceramic bowls, storejars, lamps, juglets and pyxides are common grave-objects, in addition to bead strings and ornaments;
such as simple bronze and iron bracelets, anklets and fingerings. Pritchard comments on the wealth disparity between burials, particularly in terms of the presence or absence of imported objects, precious metals and bronze vessels. Disparities between individual or family wealth are most clear when comparing the four ‘rich’ tombs with the ‘poor’ burial group (ibid.: 1980: 30) raising the issue of inequalities of wealth and differential access to prestige resources in the funerary arena, and the potential for elite and non-elite burials in the cemetery.
2.4.2 The British Museum excavations
The British Museum-led expedition at Sa’idiyeh began in 1985 under the direction of Jonathan Tubb [fig.2.5]. A major aim of this renewed excavation campaign was to uncover the Early Bronze Age (EBA) settlement remains on the Lower Tell that Pritchard had partially exposed in the North area, but was unable to further investigate. In order to expose these prehistoric remains more fully, plans were undertaken to excavate the burials entirely from the BB100-600 area (henceforth Central area). Several areas of the Lower Tell were opened in subsequent seasons to locate well-preserved EBA occupation:
BB700-1100 and DD100-700 were fairly intensively excavated down to EB levels,
whereas CC100, FF, BB1200-1400 and DD900-1250, were opened briefly to investigate the preservation and extent of EB architecture, uncovering only a small number of burials during this operation before being closed. Table 2.2 shows the sequence of burials excavated by area and by year of excavation.
Opened in 1985, the BB 100-600 consisted of a grid of six 5m squares separated by 12 reduction baulks (15m E-W x 10m N-S), giving a total excavation area of 150m2.
BB 100-600 was extended in 1989 by 1.5m on all sides of the existing limits of excavation. These and other subsequent baulk reductions and trench extensions in BB 100-600 resulted in a large excavated area of c. 234m2. This is still a relatively small area compared with the North Area soundings, although by contrast the excavation of the BB 100-600 burials was largely complete by 1990, as EBA architectural phases had then been reached across the entire area. Most of the well-preserved burials in the cemetery were excavated between 1985 and 1990 within BB 100-600. A total of 330 individually numbered burials were recorded in BB 100-600, demonstrating the intensity of cemetery use in this part of the cemetery.
Six burials were excavated in trial soundings within Areas FF and CC100 immediately south of Pritchard’s North Area in 1985 and 1986. These were generally disturbed from the construction of the early Islamic ‘khan’ and ploughing activity (Tubb 1988a: 47-8, 68). No burials were found in Area HH, which could represent the eastern edge of the cemetery bounded by a N-S cobbled street (Tubb 1988a: 68-9). In the southwest comer of the Lower Tell, five burials were excavated in DD200 in 1986 and 1987. No burials were found in the fully excavated DD300-500 extension which yielded well-preserved EB occupation levels, suggesting that part of the DD area could represent the southwest cemetery boundary (ibid.: 48-9). Burials ‘off-site’ have not been detected. If present, these are buried by alluvium or destroyed by ploughing and erosion. No burials were found in Area NN approximately 15m west of DD (Tubb et al 1996: 65-6).
In 1989, a 5 meter square (BB700) was opened c.30m south of BB 100-600 to assess the density of burials and the degree of EBA preservation. Nine burials were excavated in BB700 between 1989 and 1991, demonstrating that this part of the cemetery was not as densely used as the Central area. ‘Area BB700’ (as it came to be known) was extended in 1992 and 1993 to incorporate squares BB800, 900 and 1000 (Tubb & Dorrell 1993:
62). A similar burial density (fewer than 10 burials per 5m2) was encountered in each square suggesting a relatively sparse burial density of use across the South area of the
Lower Tell. The BB1100-1400 area was not fully excavated to EBA levels and therefore further unexcavated burials may still be present in these squares.
In 1995 and 1996 further extensions were made in the southern BB and DD areas.
Squares in BB 1100-1400 exposed a comparable burial density to that found in BB700- 1000. DD was extended eastwards (DD700-1250) where most of the burials lacked grave-goods and included a high proportion of subadults (Tubb & Dorrell 1996: 22-3;
Leach & Rega 1996). A re-appraisal of area DD suggests it was used as a burial ground in the late Islamic/Ottoman periods [section 2.5].
2.4.3 Lower Tell topography and site formation processes
The selection of burial areas may have been partly related to the topography of the underlying natural bedrock, the nature of the overlying EB settlement remains, and subsequent site formation processes. The Lower Tell surface resembles a plateau with a gently sloping north-south gradient. However, multiple exposures on the Lower Tell have revealed an irregular formation o f underlying bedrock.
A preliminary assessment suggests that the underlying bedrock was “in the form o f a northward facing horseshoe, rising on a gradient to the north ” (Tubb et al 1996: 16-18).
The elevated ‘arms’ of the horseshoe point south, with a natural depression present in the central and southern areas of the Lower Tell. This irregular formation had an impact on the construction and subsequent preservation of EBA architecture, found at a lower level in BB 100-600 (Central area) and BB700-1000 (South area), compared with Areas DD, BB1200 and Pritchard’s Area, where the elevations are higher. The EBA construction of terraces and staircases (detected in DD900) could also account for the significant drop in elevation between the higher levels of bedrock and the central depression (ibid.: 20-21).
According to this preliminary assessment, this topographic difference and the different levels of EB architecture, had an indirect impact on later cemetery use. Burials found in areas of higher bedrock elevation often made use of silted-up spaces adjacent to EB walls, or were cut directly into the EB architecture. This is demonstrated in the North area cemetery plan, where some graves were partly aligned within the confines of EB wall angles (Pritchard 1980: fig.2, square 17-J6). The eroded wall lines in areas of higher bedrock elevation (such as Area DD) may have been partially visible to the cemetery
users, as they made apparently made use of these existing architectural features23 (Tubb e ta l 1996: 25).
In BB 100-600 and BB700-1000, the ‘horseshoe’ depression was prone to successive silting episodes after the destruction and abandonment of the EB settlement. The silted- up depression did not have EBA architecture close to the Lower Tell surface, perhaps making this area a more suitable choice for cemetery use in the LBA and EIA periods.
This would avoid intrusion into the compact mudbricks and stone foundations of the EBA, which would in turn require a higher degree of energy expenditure. This heavy silting, which must have been deposited gradually between the EB and LBA periods, may partly explain the high density of cemetery use in the Central area, and the more spread- out nature of the burials to the North and South.
2.4,4 BB100-600: findings and current interpretations
The best-preserved and most densely used burial area is BB 100-600. This section describes the sequence of excavation and principal findings in this area. This Central area provides a full range of burial types represented in the cemetery, evidence for internal phasing for the LB and Iron Age, and also aspects of cemetery layout and organisation. Although a final cemetery plan is not yet available for the Central area, schematic Harris matrices are presented in figs. 2.8-13 for BB 100-600. This provides a detailed summary of the stratigraphic inter-relations between tombs in this area. A detailed description of tomb types is presented in Appendix D.
Squares BB 100-200 and BB400 were opened in 1985, with BB300, BB500 and BB600 following between 1986-1987. The burials found in these squares were cut into a 30-40 cm silt deposit overlaying the EBA levels, or truncated EB deposits and architecture.
Disturbance and intercutting of burials close to the surface resulted in a number of partial burials and isolated bone piles without any clear context (Tubb 1988a: 59). Most burials consist of simple pits (either oval or sub-rectangular), often utilizing stones and mudbricks to partially line or mark the graves. The most common orientation is W-E (head to the west), although a smaller number of pit burials found closer to the surface were E-W or N-S in orientation.
A different burial type is represented in the series of mudbrick built tombs (or cists), initially found within squares BB 100-200 [T.24, T.32, T.42]. The cists may have stood
partially above ground in antiquity, as suggested by the weathered upper mudbrick courses in T.24 (Tubb 1988a: 60). The cists were used for both single and multiple burials, sometimes containing remains of several individuals of different ages in varying degrees of articulation, including remains derived from secondaiy treatment (Tubb 1988a: 61-63, fig.44). An elaborate bronze wine-set was found in cist T.32 (ibid.: fig.
50), whereas other cists contained objects including jars, pyxides, juglets, iron knives and animal remains, leading to the interpretation that these were high status tombs (Bloch- Smith 1992: 30-31; Martin 1988). Pit graves and jar burials commonly included bronze and iron body ornaments and bead strings. Juglets and pyxides were also common in these tombs. Ceramic container burials of the ‘double-pithos’ type were also found in BB100-600, consisting of two jars with the rims removed, placed mouth to mouth (Tubb
1988a: fig. 42).
Although some of these burials were disturbed between excavation seasons or in antiquity, important aspects of cemetery phasing were revealed during the excavation process. Found immediately underlying the cists, but cutting into EB deposits and walls, were a series of simple pit graves. The best-preserved, deepest and earliest burials in BB 100-600 (designated Phase 1) were found immediately underlying the cist tombs in Area BB100-200 (e.g. T.232 under T.41/97: Tubb 1988a: 64; 1990b: 106-7). Other burials in this phase included simple pit-burials and a small proportion of jar and double- pithos burials. The cists were consistently found to overlay and truncate these earlier pit and jar burials and are assigned to a distinct cemetery phase (designated Phase 2). In contrast to the deep silt deposits in the cemetery, a compact yellowish-orange silt-clay layer was also present across parts of BB 100-200. This layer appears to be the result of heavy erosion, washing and redeposition from the mudbricks of the Phase 2 cists. Cut into this yellowish-orange layer are burials that must have post-dated the cists, therefore demonstrating another aspect of a relative phasing sequence (Phase 3). A number of Phase 3 burials include secondary bone deposits, primary pit burials, and storejar burials were found close to the surface, overlying or cutting into deposits overlaying the Phase 2 cists, and contain a similar range of objects to those found in the cists, indicating some continuity between Phases 2-3. Several E-W burials were also found to post-date Phase 3, and are subsequently assigned to the Iron EC/Persian period on the basis of chronologically diagnostic objects found in the tombs, and designated Phase 424.
No distinct pattern emerged as to the Phase 1 layout at the time of excavation, except for a consistent W-E orientation and regular spacing between graves (Tubb 1988a: 61). A
reconstruction o f the cemetery plan demonstrates that at least three columns o f burials are present in BB 100-600, on a NW-SE alignment (fig. 5.6) - confirming that Phase 1 was
‘planned’. Phase 1 grave-assemblages were found to be quite diverse in the range of materials and object types compared with Phase 2. They include bronze bowls and weapons, ivory and stone vessels, and faience and stone bead strings. Ceramic objects include bowls, lamps, storejars, jugs, juglets and flasks. Imitation Mycenaean stirrup-jars were also present, typical of the LBHB-Iron IA transition. T.46 yielded the largest single grave-assemblage in BB 100-600 (Tubb 1988a: 64-65, fig. 48A), representing many object types found in other Phase 1 burials. Unusual burial practices were also noted in Phase 1 burials, such as the tight binding of the deceased in ‘Egyptian linen’ (preserved as mineralized textile ‘impressions’ on bronzes), and the inclusion of objects within body wrappings (e.g. T.251: ibid.: 63-4, fig. 45). The unusual burial practices in BB 100-600, the ‘bitumen burials’ in the North Area, the presence of ‘Egyptian linen’ and tight binding of the body, appear to suggest that Egyptian cultural influences are present in the cemetery (Tubb 1990a: 36; 1990b: 105-7; 1995: 141-3; 1998: 89-90).
The finding of double-pithos burials in the BB 100-600 area contributed to the development of a new interpretation for the cemetery, as this type is considered by many authors as a foreign burial type to the region. The double-pithos burial was interpreted by Tubb as belonging to a ‘Sea Peoples’ population (1990a: 33), perhaps as part of an Egyptian affiliated foreign contingent settling in the region during the late 13th Century, and continuing to inhabit the Jordan Valley after the Egyptian withdrawal (1995; 1998:
99-106). This is partly based on the functional similarity between this burial type and the anthropoid clay coffins presumed to be used as burial containers by other ‘Sea Peoples’
groups, such as the Philistines (Tubb 1990b: 103).