education
The aim of this section is to examine key education indicators36, to understand:
▪
If there are significant gender differences in access to education among the EU-27 Member States;▪
If there are significant gender differences between access to primary and secondary education in Member States; and▪
If gender inequalities are evident in access to education or in education outcomes in the EU.The analysis draws on demographic indicators, as well as indicators of access to education and educational outcomes that are available via Eurostat, from the UOE database (Unesco, OECD and Eurostat database). All of the statistics used to prepare this section of the report are provided in Annex 3. Statistics presented in the main body of the report are rounded to one decimal place.
2.2.1 Demand for education by gender
In 2009, the total population of the European Union exceeded 499 million (further population data are provided in Annex 3, Table 1.1). In 2007, 51.2% of the total EU population were women. However, an examination of 2009 population data for the age groups 0-14, used as a proxy for the school aged population, indicates that the balance between males and female reverse: 51.3% of the population of this age group is male and 48.7% female. In all EU Member States this pattern of more males than females among the population aged 0-14 is evident though the precise figures vary between a low of 51.1% in Finland and a high of 51.5% in Greece.
36
Definitions for key education indicators are from: EFA Global Monitoring Report Education for All 2010
http://www.unescobkk.org/fileadmin/user_upload/efa/Publications/2010_EFA_GMR_FullReport.pdf Eurostat‟s on-line Education and training glossary
11 In practice, this means that throughout this section, where reference is made to male and female participation, the relative share of males and females should reflect this overall distribution.
All Member States have fertility rates below the replacement rate37 of 2.10. In 2008, the EU average was 1.56 with Slovakia recording the lowest fertility rate of 1.32. In 2008 Ireland had the highest fertility rate in EU-27, at 2.09. The lowest rates are evident in eastern European countries, where the fertility rate averaged 1.30 or fewer children per woman (Annex 3, Table 1.2). Fertility rates below the replacement rate means that the school age population across Europe is falling.
2.2.1.1 General information about compulsory education
In just over half of EU-27 Member States (AT, BE, CZ, DE, DK, ES, FR, IE, IT, PL38, PT, RO, SK, SI), full‐time compulsory education starts at the age of six. In five Member States (BG, EE, FI, LT, SE) compulsory education starts at the age of seven and in seven countries at the age of five (CY, EL, HU, LV, MT, NL, UK39). Only in Luxembourg compulsory schooling starts earlier, at the age of four. In some countries, for example Ireland, children are typically enrolled in primary school from the ages of four or five, well before schooling becomes compulsory.
Generally, compulsory education finishes at the age of 15 (AT, BE, CY, CZ, DE40, EL, LU, SI) or 16 (BG, DK, EE, ES, FI, FR, IE, IT, LT, LV, MT, PL41, RO, SK, SE, UK) and lasts nine or ten years.
The duration of compulsory education is significantly higher in Hungary and the Netherlands (both 13 years), where compulsory education ends aged 18. In Portugal it also ends at 18 but it lasts only 12 years, as it starts at aged 6. The duration of compulsory education is also 12 years in Northern Ireland (UK) though it starts aged four 4 and ends at 16. In
Luxembourg, Cyprus and the United Kingdom compulsory education lasts 11 years (see Annex 3, Table 1.4).
2.2.1.2 Access to primary education (ISCED 1)
The number of students in primary schools in EU-27 decreased from 32,783,547 in 1999 to 27,651,251 in 2008. However, the proportion of female students slightly increased over the period, up from 48.5% in 1999 to 48.6% of all pupils in 2008. This latter figure is in line with the overall female share of the total 0-14 age group population identified in section 2.2.1. The United Kingdom has the highest number of primary school students with 4.46 million students enrolled in primary schools in 2008. The UK figure is slightly higher than the French primary school population (4.13 million students) and some 1.23 million pupils higher than in Germany (3.23 million). Further information is found in Annex 3, Table 1.7.
The proportion of female students has grown between 1999 and 2008 across 14 Member States, with increases in Spain (+0.50%), Latvia (+0.43%), Bulgaria and Belgium (both +0.37%), Cyprus (+0. 35%), Denmark (+0.22%), Ireland (+0.21%), Sweden (+0.17%), Poland (+0.12%), Malta (+0.11%), Germany (+0.1%), Netherlands (+0.02%), Portugal (+0.05%) and Slovakia (+0. 05%).
37
The replacement rate is the average number of children per woman required to keep the natural population stable, under the theoretical assumption of no migration.
38
In Poland from 1 September 2012 the compulsory schooling age will include also pre-school education.
39
Excluding Northern Ireland where it starts at the age of 4.
40 In the majority of Länder it ends at the age of 15, in a few of them at the age of 16. 41
In Poland there is a differentiation between compulsory schooling and compulsory education (learning). Compulsory schooling of a child lasts until the completion of secondary school (usually until the age of 16), but no longer than the age of 18, and takes place in primary and secondary schools. Compulsory education last until the age of 18 and is fulfilled after finishing secondary school by attending a public or nonpublic upper secondary school, extracurricular activities, or professional preparation.
12 The Institute for Statistics of the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural
Organization (UNESCO) defines the gross intake rate (GIR) as the total number of new entrants to a given grade of primary education,42 regardless of age, expressed as a percentage of the population at the official school entrance age for that grade. It can be calculated by specific population groups (for instance by sex, as in this case). The Gross Intake Rate can exceed 100% due to early or late entry and/or grade repetition. In 2007 the EU-27 gross intake rate to the first grade of primary school was 101.5% – pointing to a satisfactory capacity of enrolment for children in the first level of education – with a small number of Member States countries lagging behind (HU, LV, MT). The gender parity index (GPI)43 is slightly up from 0.990 in 1999 to 0.995 in 2007 (Annex 3, Table 1.5). The Net Intake Rate (NIR) indicates the new entrants to the first grade of primary education44 who are of the age group corresponding to a given level of education, expressed as a percentage of the corresponding population. The NIR is only available for five Member States (DK, EE, EL, HU and SE). A high disparity between the GIR and the NIR points to a concentration of children aged six years and older in the first grade of primary school; this is evident in
Denmark and Hungary. In Denmark a gender difference also emerges, as the GPI is equal to 1.11 (indicating a disadvantage for boys compared to girls). See Annex 3, Table 1.6 for further information.
The proportion of out-of-school children – defined as children in the official primary school age range who are not enrolled in either primary or secondary school – has increased between 1999 and 2007 in most Member States.45 The exceptions include Austria, Cyprus, Greece, Ireland, Luxembourg, Poland and Spain.
In 2007, female students accounted for 48.2% of all out-of-school children down from 49.7% in 1999. The 2007 figure is close to the overall share of females in the 0-14 age group (48.7%). However, as indicated in Annex 3 Table 1.10, in some Member States the 2007 percentage of female out-of-school children clearly exceeds that of their male counterparts (Spain 80%, Italy 73%, Netherlands 70%, Portugal 70% and Cyprus 56%). The male share of out of school children has increased from 50.3% in 1999 to 51.8% in 2007. In fourteen Member States, the out of school rates for male pupils exceeds the 51.8% EU average (AT, CZ, DK, EE, FI, HU, IE, LT, LV, LU, PL, RO, SK and UK). Out-of-school children of primary school age in Europe are likely to belong to vulnerable groups facing the threat of social exclusion and deprivation either in urban or rural areas46.
Out-of-school children47 (total 000, and % by sex, 1999 and 2007) Out of school
children
Total (000) Male (%) Female (%)
EU-27 1999 2007 1999 2007 1999 2007
309.4 518.3 50.3 51.8 49.7 48.2
Source: UOE database
42
By definition the Gross Intake Rate is a specific indicator for primary level education.
43
The gender parity index (GPI) is the ratio of female to male values (or male to female, in certain cases) of a given indicator. A GPI of 1 indicates parity between sexes; a GPI above or below 1 indicates a disparity in favour of one sex over the other.
44
This indicator is a specific indicator for primary level education.
45
Definitions for out of school children do not indicate whether home educated children are included in the out of school figures.
46
For further details see Eurofound (2007). Out-of-school care services for children living in disadvantaged areas,
http://www.eurofound.europa.eu/pubdocs/2007/520/en/1/ef07520en.pdf
47
Out-of-school children are children in the official primary school age range who are not enrolled in either primary or secondary school.
13 2.2.1.3 Access to secondary education (ISCED 2 and 3)
The number of students in secondary schools in EU-27 decreased from 46,283,942 in 1999 to 43,506,551 in 2008. In addition, the percentage of female students decreased slightly over the period from 49.6% in 1999 to 49.3% in 2008. The female share of the out of school rate has fallen in the following Member States: Belgium, Denmark, Finland, the Netherlands, Slovenia, Sweden and the United Kingdom. However in all cases, with the exception of the UK, the total out of school population has increased hence the numbers of out of schools females have, in some cases, substantially increased (Annex 3, Table 1.11).
Enrolment in upper secondary education is high in the EU-27. Since 1999 the proportion of students enrolled in secondary education has grown in most Member States. In 2007, most EU-27 Member States had secondary education gross enrolment ratios (GER)48 at over 95%. Low GERs (less than 95%) are found in lower secondary education (ISCED 2) in Bulgaria, Slovakia and Slovenia. In 2007, gross enrolment ratios ranged from 93.5 in Slovenia and Slovakia to 116.0 in Spain. Half of all Member States had GERs above 100, with uneven gender disparities. However, the gender parity index (GPI) for ISCED 2 and ISCED 3 has fallen from 1.03 to 0.99 between 1999 and 2007, hence indicating parity (at the EU level) between the sexes.
Even though many Member States have achieved (or are close to achieving) gender parity in secondary education, the GPI shows uneven results. Concerning ISCED 2, in some
countries the GPI remains below 0.97 (BE, BG, EE, EL, NL), or higher than 1.03 (IE, MT) (Annex 3, Table 1.13). Regarding ISCED 3, the GPI shows that in some countries girls are still disadvantaged, i.e. the GPI is lower than 0.97 (AT, DE, MT), while in others the percentage of females exceeds that of males i.e. the GPI is higher than 1.03 (CY, EE, ES, FI, LT, LV, LU, IE and PT), pointing to a minimal advantage for girls (Annex 3, Table 1.14).
The net enrolment ratio (NER) is the enrolment of the official age group for a given level of education, expressed as a percentage of the corresponding population. The Net Enrolment Ratio in secondary education in 2007 for males is 89.5% and for females 91.0%, while the respective GPI is 1.02 (Annex 3, Table 1.16).
2.2.2 Education outcomes-Education attainment rates and gender
The percentage of early school leavers is one of the five benchmarks for the Lisbon strategy in the field of education: the EU benchmark for 2010 was to achieve an EU average of no more than 10% early school leavers.49 In the EU-27, the percentage of early school leavers decreased from 18.1% in 1999 to 14.4% in 2009. Although progress is evident in the majority of countries, some countries are stagnating and others are regressing. There is a
considerable gap between those close to and those some distance from the 10% target. A small number of countries have already exceeded the benchmark (AT, CZ, LU, PL, SK and SI). The best performing Member States are the Czech Republic (5.4%), Poland (5.3%), Slovenia (5.3%) and Slovakia (4.9%). At the other end of the spectrum, Malta (36.8%), Portugal (31.2%) and Spain (31.2%), are well above EU average and at a great distance from achieving the target (Annex 3, Table 1.17).
48
The gross enrolment ratio (GER) is the total enrolment in a specific level of education, regardless of age, expressed as a percentage of the population in the official age group corresponding to this level of education. It may be computed by sex groups. The GER can exceed 100% due to early or late entry and/or grade repetition.
49
CEC (2007). Progress towards the Lisbon Objectives in Education and Training. Indicators and Benchmarks. Commission Staff Working Document. SEC
available at:
14 Early school leavers50 by sex (percentage, years 1999, 2009)
Early School Leavers
Total (%) Male (%) Female (%)
EU27 1999 2009 1999 2009 1999 2009
18.1 14.4 20.4 15.5 15.8 11.4
Source: Eurostat.
In 1999, the proportion of male early school leavers (20.4%) was considerably higher than that of females (15.8%), with the exception of Austria, Germany and Luxembourg (Annex 3, Table 1.17). In 2009, the difference has decreased in comparison to 1999 in all EU-27 Member States, with the proportion of male early school leavers (15.5%) 4.1 percentage points higher than that for females (11.4%).Measures to reduce early school leaving linked to the Lisbon Strategy appear to have had greater effect on boys than girls with the early school leaving rates falling by 4.9 and 4.4 percentage points respectively.
Overall, Mediterranean countries have a high number of early school leavers and relatively low youth education attainment levels – defined as the share of young people between 20-24 years old having attained at least upper secondary education level as a percentage of the total population of the same age group. In 2007, the EU-27 average youth attainment level was 78.5%. In the same year, the Czech Republic showed the highest level of youth
education attainment among EU Member States with 91.8%, while Spain had the lowest with 61.1%. In almost all countries, the youth attainment rate was higher for young women than it was for young men with only two exceptions: the Czech Republic and Romania. In 2007, for the EU-27, 82.9% of young women had completed upper secondary education compared to 76.5% of young men. The percentage point difference between the female and male attainment rates in 2007 was 6.4, up from a 5.7 percentage point difference in 2000, indicating a growing gender gap in education outcomes. In some countries, the gender gap is rather large in favour of young women, e.g. in Estonia (17.4%), Portugal (14.5%), Denmark (13.5%), Spain (12.2%) and Cyprus (11.2%) (Annex 3, Table 1.18). Youth attainment level by sex (years 2000 and 2007)
Youth Attainment level
Total (%) Male (%) Female (%)
EU27 2000 2007 2000 2007 2000 2007
76.6 78.1 73.8 75.4 79.3 80.8
Source: Eurostat
Summary
Developing a proxy for male / female proportion of the total 0-14 population group provides a benchmark against which male and female participation and out of school rates can be considered. For all Member States the proportion of males in this age cohort is higher than the equivalent female proportion.
50 „Early school leavers‟ refers to the percentage of the population (males or females) aged 18 to 24 who have
received no more than a secondary education and are not engaged in further education or training. For Eurostat purposes, early school leavers are defined as that percentage of individuals aged 18 to 24, recorded in the Labour force survey (LFS):
• whose highest level of education or training attained is ISCED 0, 1, 2 or 3c short; and • who received no education or training in the four weeks preceding the survey.
The 'Early school leavers' statistical indicator is calculated by dividing the number of early school leavers (as defined above) by the total population of the same age group and sex group in the LFS.
15 The statistics demonstrate some interesting findings:
▪
While the total school age population is falling, the numbers of children out of school is rising.▪
School enrolments appears to have risen among female students as girls now represent a higher share of all children in school and the gender parity index has moved closer towards 1. In comparing the enrolment rates to the female share of the total population, the share of enrolled girls appears appropriate.▪
Absolute numbers of female students have fallen in secondary education between 1999 and 2008, though the gender parity index at ISCED levels 2 and 3 has fallen from 1.03 in 1999 to 0.99, indicating parity (within the EU), though variation around this average is evident at the Member State level.▪
Concerning out of school rates, there is evidence of significant issues for female students in the following cases: Cyprus, Italy, the Netherlands, Portugal and Spain. However, in fourteen Member States, the out of school rates for male pupils exceeds the 51.8% EU average (AT, CZ, DK, EE, FI, HU, IE, LT, LV, LU, PL, RO, SK and UK). In some cases the average is exceeded considerably - by 10 percentage points or more – (AT, FR, LV, LU, UK). However, in presenting these statistics there is no assumption that sex discrimination is a factor contributing to their absence from education.Concerning youth attainment, the statistics clearly show that girls are outperforming boys and that the performance gap is widening.