There has been much debate about the importance of literacy for women in the Global South, literacy often being identified as a critical success factor for participation in the information society (Thas et al., 2007; Elijah and Ogunlade, 2006; Green and Trevor- Deutsche, 2002; Gurer and Camp, 2002; Hafkin and Taggart, 2001). Wagner (2001) posits that development practices place considerable emphasis on the enhancement of basic education and literacy. Therefore, this section discusses the debates concerning both basic and IT literacy. Primo(2003:14) notes that “two-thirds of the world’s 870 million illiterate people are women” and the latest reports published by the UN show these figures broken down by country and demonstrate the huge gender literacy gap (UN, 2011). INSTRAW’s report on the gender digital divide, by Huyer and Sikoska (2003:17), identified that out “of all the barriers to women’s access to and use of ICTs. Language and literacy should be considered among the most important”. This issue is demonstrated by the research of Green and Trevor-Deutsche (2002:5), who suggest that “in most sub-Saharan African Countries, about 70% of adult women are illiterate with similar figures for those Asian countries that cited data”. Similarly, Mahmood (2005:6), in his study on multipurpose community telecentres for rural development in Pakistan, states that “women, who are almost half of the rural population, are only 10 percent literate”.
Elnaggar (2007:6) reinforces this point in his study of women in Oman, emphasising the difference in literacy levels between men and women but also suggesting that further research is needed. My research therefore incorporates a comparative analysis of how formal and informal education influences women’s engagement with ICTs (Sinha, 2009; Elnaggar, 2007; Huyer and Sikoska, 2003). The findings will contribute to the efforts of ICT development practitioners who use ICTs to target women, building particularly on the work of Sinha (2009) in Bhutan. The findings will provide a deeper understanding for ICT4D practitioners in designing development programmes for varying illiteracy levels, along with recommendations as to the appropriate ICT services for women. Furthermore, to better understand the challenges that women face to obtain basic literacy and ICT literacy, I have highlighted the key current debates in this field in the sections below.
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2.3.2.1
Discrimination Towards Women’s Access to Education
In reviewing the current literature, five key factors that impede women’s access to education, and which subsequently become barriers to their engagement with ICTs, are evident. First, there appear to be major cultural and traditional influences that play a critical role in restricting women’s access to education (see also Elnaggar, 2007; Sharma and Maindiratta, 2005; Sada et al., 2004; Johnson 2003; Primo 2003; Adam, 2002; Hafkin and Taggart, 2001). Second, there appears to be a common attitude in some cultures that invalidates girl’s right to education and that views her as merely an extra resource for conducting domestic chores, hawking, begging and farm work (Primo, 2003; Ramilo, 2002). Third, Sada et al. (2004:9) suggest that many parents “push their children into hawking for economic reasons, to supplement the family income”, putting girls at a major disadvantage. She gives the example of a case study in Nigeria (see also Sweetman, 2005). Fourth, and amplifying this point, Primo (2003) states that in many societies a girl’s education is considered less important than a boy’s, which results in the girl’s access to computers being restricted. Lastly, an interesting study conducted by Green (2004:31) across Pacific Asia reveals that girls had limited access to computers at schools due to a number of factors that included “high students-to-computer ratios and first-come, first-served policies [that] did not favour the girls; girls’ access time was limited by earlier curfew hours and domestic chore responsibilities; and local patriarchal beliefs allowed boys to dominate the computer lab environment” (see also Kirkup, 2002). All of these factors are possible causes of girls’ and women’s lesser engagement with ICTs, and in some cases fear of computers later in life (Thas et al., 2007; Gurer and Camp, 2002; Ramilo, 2002).
2.3.2.2
Basic ICT Literacy
In the context of basic ICT literacy, Huyer and Sikoska (2003:12) argue that the “lack of education impeded women from engaging effectively with ICTs”. Therefore, women need to gain both basic literacy and ICT literacy in parallel to ensure that they are fully equipped to take part in the information age (Elnaggar, 2007; Thas et al., 2007; Alampay, 2006; Gurumurthy, 2004; Primo, 2003; Gurer and Camp, 2002; Ramilo, 2002).In addition, Thas et al. (2007) examined e-primers for the information economy and gender equality in Asia, emphasising the importance of ICT familiarity and exposure in enabling women’s engagement in the information society. Similar thoughts were articulated by Primo (2003) in the UNDP report examining gender issues in the information society: “The under-representation of women in computing is alarming since it raises the disturbing possibility that the field of computer science functions in ways that
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hinder or discourage women from becoming a part of it” (Gurer and Camp, 2002:32). This could be explained by the fact that “young women are not encouraged to take up science and technology related subjects in schools and/or they feel that this would be an area in which they cannot excel” (Wangmo et al., 2004:12). Hafkin and Taggart (2001:77), in their study on gender and IT in developing countries, argue that “the single most important factor in improving the ability of girls and women in developing countries to take full advantage of the opportunities offered by information technology is more education, at all levels, from literacy through scientific and technological education”. They continue that “beyond access to basic education, girls and women must be equipped with skills to prepare them for a range of roles in information technology as users, creators, designers and managers”. This lack of exposure can lead to a widespread fear of technology in women that manifests itself as ‘technophobia’, which is sometimes coupled with the fear of entering what some perceive to be a male domain (Elijah and Ogunlade, 2006; Loh-Ludher et al., 2006). A synthesis of the overall debates and potential consequences creates further obstacles for women’s engagement with ICTs (Figure 2.4, also see Saghir et al., 2009; Hafkin and Taggart, 2001). Although my research is not explicitly focused on examining lack of education, by considering the use and impact of ICTs, its outcomes provide insight into the degree of women’s engagement with ICTs and the subsequent impact of education.
56 Figure 2.4
Synthesis: Key Debates on Literacy Barriers (Source: Author)
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