C ONCLUSIONES PARCIALES

The spiritual leadership theory proposed by Fry (2003) may be regarded as an extension of the leadership theories operating within the spiritual paradigm in that Fry’s theory addresses the critical conceptual deficiencies of these leadership theories²⁵. A criticism of many of the leadership theories and, in particular spiritual leadership theories, is the high level of abstraction resulting in problems in the effective implementation of these theories. Thus, it is essential that the ISL model should not only possess critical attributes but should also be applied to the South African public service in a practical way.

A general review of existing research on leadership models reveals that there are two central areas of research into leadership (Patching, 2011). Firstly, there is focused research which concentrates on leaders’ behaviours and styles and develops leadership models based on an ‘ideal’ leader within a specific category.

Secondly, there is broad-based research which focuses on leadership models that are based on selecting the best leadership ‘qualities’ (Patching, 2011).

Patching (2011) warns against leadership development that requires leaders to

25 This discussion is further developed in the next chapter.

adhere to a competency model or blueprint on how to become a leader.

However, Patching’s analysis fails to examine the notion of ‘ideal’ leadership in sufficient depth or complexity. Mostovicz, Kakabadse and Kakabadse (2009:570) maintain that the notion of ‘ideal’ leadership “does not try to describe a particular behaviour but looks to capture the logic of a reality we use meaningfully as an inspirational benchmark”. Hence, the flaw in Patching’s argument is not about discarding leadership competency models but rather ensuring that leadership competency models are non-prescriptive, allow for inner development and are dynamic.

In view of the above, the development of an ISL model should ensure that it is not overly prescriptive, by allowing space for spiritual leaders to express their unique leadership styles. However, such a model should still specify sufficient guidelines to assist the leader in developing the required qualities and attributes of a spiritual leader per se.

A survey of the literature on spiritual leadership models reveals that these models may be broadly classified into two main categories. The first category involves leadership models that are based on principles of spirituality and SQ, but are not directly referred to as spiritual leadership models, while the second type of leadership model is referred to directly as a spiritual leadership model. An analysis of these spiritual leadership models will be presented in Chapter Four of this thesis.

Category one: Leadership models based on the principles of spirituality and SQ

The leadership models in category one may be classified as spiritual leadership models because they reflect the principles of spirituality (higher purpose, core positive values, authenticity, SQ and interconnectedness). These leadership models focus on unpacking the practical process of spiritual leadership development.

Zohar and Marshall’s (2004) 12 Transformative Principles Model involves the development of spiritual intelligence (SQ) by following 12 Transformative Principles. Zohar and Marshall (2004) based their conceptualisation of a leader on servant leadership theory because spiritual leadership theory was only in its infancy stage when they developed their model.²⁶ However, because their model is premised on the principles of SQ, it reflects more of the qualities of spiritual leadership than servant leadership. Although other models, such as those of Fry (2009) and Covey (2004), do refer to SQ, SQ is not their core focus in the development of a spiritual leader. On the other hand, Zohar and Marshall’s model included behavioural indicators for measuring the attainment of each of the 12 Transformative Principles in leaders. In addition, indicators reflecting the level of SQ in an organisation are also specified.

Kevin Cashman (1998) developed a Seven Pathways Leadership Model from the Inside Out. Similar to the other spiritual leadership models, Cashman’s Leadership Model from the Inside Out includes the core principles of spirituality.

However, the compelling feature of this model is that its primary approach involves developing leadership from the inside out. Another distinctive aspect of Cashman’s model is the focus on being as opposed to having. Despite the fact that Fry (2009) only recently introduced the spiritual concept of ‘being’ in order to enhance his spiritual leadership theory, this concept is not as extensively examined in Fry’s work as it is in Cashman’s model. However, a deficiency in Cashman’s model, which is also found in the spiritual leadership models of Fairholm, Ferguson and Milliman, Covey, and Zohar and Marshall, is that there is little empirical evidence for the way spiritual leadership improves organisational performance.

Stephen Covey (2004) developed a Whole Person Leadership Model that focuses on holistic leadership development by harnessing the four personal intelligences of SQ, EQ, IQ and PQ. It also uses an inside out approach in order

26 Spiritual leadership was only developed as a leadership theory by Fry in 2003 (Fry, 2003).

to improve effectiveness in organisations. Covey’s Whole Person Leadership Model falls into the category of spiritual leadership models because it is firmly rooted in the four core principles of spirituality. In addition, it also emphasises the important role of SQ in guiding the other personal intelligences in the development of leadership (Covey, 2004:65). However, Covey’s model differs from other spiritual leadership models in that a core dimension involves propagating the role of the spiritual leader as one that inspires others.

Category two: Spiritual leadership models

The leadership models in this category focus primarily on developing the theoretical constructs of spiritual leadership. All these models are founded on the principles of spirituality. However, each model differs in emphasis while each introduces its own specific constructs related to spirituality.

Gilbert Fairholm (1996:13), who is lauded as one of the pioneers in developing the theoretical construct of spiritual leadership, conceptualised the spiritual leadership model as creating moral and selfless leaders who are committed to service. Apart from its four key principles of spirituality, Fairholm’s (1996) model is unique in that it emphasises stewardship and service to the community.

The Memorial Hermann, a health care institute in Houston, developed a spiritual leadership model in partnership with the Spiritual Leadership Institute (Wolf, 2004:23). The primary purpose of this model is to develop spiritual leadership by following three core processes, namely: focusing on values; allowing employees an opportunity to explore and express their spirituality; and planning for and encouraging community involvement (Wolf, 2004:24). Similar to Fairholm’s model of spiritual leadership, this is the only other model that attaches significant value to community involvement. Despite the fact that this spiritual leadership model lacks sufficient conceptual rigour by critically examining the spiritual leadership constructs with the same theoretical veracity as the other models, this model

does sufficiently cover the key principles of spirituality. Its strength lies in the fact that it offers a user-friendly process for developing spiritual leadership – something that is lacking in other spiritual leadership models.

Ferguson and Milliman (2008) created a spiritual leadership framework for effective organisational values. Ferguson and Milliman’s spiritual leadership model places greater emphasis on authenticity, service to others and an alignment between personal and organisational values. This model is similar to Fry’s model in that it stresses the importance of congruence between personal values and organisational values.

Louis Fry, who has published extensive works on the theory of spiritual leadership, developed a spiritual leadership model from the perspective of intrinsic motivation (Fry, Hannah, Noel, and Walumbwa, 2011). Fry’s (2009) spiritual leadership model differs from other models in that it focuses on the causal relationship between hope/faith, vision and altruistic love which may instil a sense of calling and membership in others and which, in turn, improves organisational performance. Unlike many of the other models, Fry’s spiritual leadership theory model has been tested in private, public and development sector organisations.

Margaret Benefiel (2005) developed a spiritual leadership model for organisational transformation. Benefiel’s spiritual leadership model addresses the theoretical weakness of Fry and Fairholm’s spiritual leadership models by proposing a more robust explanation for the ‘spiritual’ aspect of spiritual leadership. Moreover, Benefiel (2005:723) is the only theorist who was able to address the mounting epistemological criticism of empirical studies on organisational spirituality. She did so by locating spirituality within the organisational paradigms of Burrell and Morgan (1994 as cited in Benefiel, 2005) and the philosophy of Bernard Lonergan (1985 as cited in Benefiel, 2005) and

Daniel Helminiak (1996 as cited in Benefiel, 2005) and by taking into account spiritual transformation in the area of spirituality.

Sangeeta Parameshwar (2005) developed a spiritual leadership model based on a phenomenological study. This study examined significant life events in the lives of famous leaders in order to reveal the way in which operating in accordance with spiritual principles could contribute to the process of ego-transcendence. It was hoped that this would enable leaders to transform challenges into opportunities (Klenke, 2007:86). This model differs significantly from the other models in that its core focus involves ego-transcendence. However, aspects of Parameshwar’s model (2005:694) are premised on Fry’s spiritual leadership model.

Therefore, it is evident from the review of the spiritual leadership models that they are based on the constructs of higher purpose, core values, authenticity and interconnectedness. Nevertheless, there are variations in the way in which each model emphasises particular constructs related to spirituality.

1.9 SIGNIFICANCE AND CONTRIBUTION OF THE STUDY

This study is important and will add value to the existing body of literature on leadership, organisational performance, spirituality, and training and development initiatives in general and more specifically in South Africa, for several key reasons.

Spiritual leadership is an emerging field of scholarship. Most of the scholarly work is based on Western experience, resulting in a dearth of scholarship on Africa and South Africa in particular. This is evident from Fry’s studies. He is one of the few scholars who has examined spiritual leadership in a public sector milieu, but they are located in a Western context. There is apparently no study on the development of a spiritual leadership model specifically for the South African

public sector context. This study is therefore novel in that it examines the application of spiritual leadership in the South African public service context.

This study will contribute to developing spiritual leaders who, because they operate in accordance with ethical and virtuous principles, will be able to avert political and financial scandals (Lennick and Kiel, 2005). At a time when the South African public sector is struggling to combat corruption (Gordhan, 2010:21;

National Planning Commission, 2011:25), spiritual leadership can model the ethical behaviour which is vital in overcoming corruption (Rossouw, 1997:1542).

Another contribution of this study would be the development of spiritual leadership which is able to improve the level of performance in an organisation.

This is important because there is a strong focus on a performance-based approach promoted by government’s 12 Performance Outcome Areas (Creamer Media Reporter, 2010).

This study is also significant because it aims to develop spiritual leaders who are able to create a level of change at the deepest level of the being, so that an employee’s inner power may be unleashed and an organisation’s competitive advantage maintained (Klein and Izzo, 1999). A critical component of spiritual leadership is the internalising of spiritual values and a higher purpose which results in an intrinsic motivation to serve others (Fry, Hannah, Noel, and Walumba, 2011:268). This, in turn, enhances performance and productivity in organisations.

Finally, although there is growing research on the construct of spiritual leadership and arguing its merits, there is a lack of research on developing a theory of spiritual leadership that could contribute to the construction of a spiritual leadership model. Moreover, research is needed that examines the impact of a spiritual leader in an organisational context, especially public sector organisations. Some research has, however, been conducted in this field by Fry

and his colleagues. However, none of the studies mentioned were conducted in the South African public service. Research on workplace spirituality has mostly been conducted in the private sector (McConkie, 2008:340). The gap in the literature therefore indicates that research should be conducted on the way in which spiritual leadership can be practically developed and applied in public sector organisations.

Despite the fact that the research on spiritual leadership is limited, the research that has been conducted has generally been located in or intended for private sector organisations. Therefore, the value of this study would be to contribute to the existing body of literature by examining and developing an ISL model specifically for the South African public service. This study also contributes to addressing the gap in the research on workplace spirituality in the public service because the ISL model will be specifically adapted for public service departments.

1.10 STRUCTURE AND CHAPTER OUTLINE OF THE STUDY

This study comprises ten chapters, outlined as follows:

Chapter 1 establishes that current South African leaders operating within a progressive legislative framework are unable to address widespread corruption, poor performance and a loss of purpose successfully. However, spiritual leadership, which is emerging as a new paradigm, has been found to address organisational malaise (Fry, 2009). This thesis proposes the development of an ISL model, based on the adaptation and augmentation of existing spiritual leadership models, to address critical organisational problems in the South African public service. The chapter also explores the background to the research problem, the research problem itself, research assumptions, research questions and research objectives, provides a brief review of the relevant literature and indicates the significance of the study.

Chapter 2 provides an overview of the theoretical perspectives on spirituality as well as on traditional and spiritual leadership theories. The chapter examines the interrelationships between the personal intelligences of mental intelligence, emotional intelligence, spiritual intelligence and physical intelligence. The interrelationship between religion, spirituality and spiritual intelligence is also examined. In addition, traditional leadership theories and leadership theories that fall within a spiritual paradigm are investigated.

Chapter 3 examines the relevance of spirituality in the workplace and, specifically, in the South African public service. Spiritual leadership and ethics in the public service are also explored. This chapter also discusses organisational performance and spirituality.

Chapter 4 involves a critical analysis of the spiritual leadership models developed by Danah Zohar and Ian Marshall, Kevin Cashman, Stephen Covey, Gilbert Fairholm, The Memorial Hermann, Louis Fry, Jeffry Ferguson and John Milliman, Margaret Benefiel and Sangeeta Parameshwar. The purpose of this chapter is to conduct a comparative analysis of these models so that the key principles and best practices may be extracted for the development of an ISL model.

Chapter 5 presents the ISL model based on the critical analysis of spiritual leadership models in the previous chapter. The aim of the ISL model is to provide both a framework and a practical guide to assist leaders in becoming spiritual leaders in the South African public service, as well as to enable them to address organisational problems. The ISL model reflects the expected inputs, processes, outputs and outcomes of spiritual leadership.

Chapter 6 discusses the research methodology adopted in this study. It explains the reason for adopting both a quantitative and a qualitative research approach.

The relevant research methods, appropriate data collecting methods and  

sampling procedure are also discussed. This chapter explores the issues of data analysis, the validity and reliability of the findings and the limitations of the study.

Chapter 7 presents the results of the fieldwork. The findings reflect the survey and interview respondents’ perceptions of the relevance of the constructs of the ISL model for improving organisational performance in the South African public service.

Chapter 8 presents the results of the fieldwork pertaining to the overall performance of departments and the critical challenges facing public service leaders. The findings examine the impact of spiritual leadership and the effective implementation of the ISL model in the South African public service.

Chapter 9 presents the research analysis as well as interpretations and discussions of the fieldwork carried out during the research intervention process.

The core themes arising from the literature review chapters are used to analyse and interpret the themes and patterns which emerged from the data collected.

The literature review chapters on spirituality, spiritual leadership and leadership theories; the relevance of spirituality in the workplace; a critical analysis of spiritual leadership models; and an ISL model are used to identify the critical themes and to interpret the research data.

Chapter 10 presents the conclusions and recommendations of the study. This chapter draws conclusions from the interpretation of the findings. The chapter then suggests ways in which to improve the ISL model which was developed and also ways in which it may be implemented effectively in public service departments. The chapter ends by suggesting future research that may be considered in the field of spiritual leadership.

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