8. ANÁLISIS TEMPORAL A LA ESCALA DE LAS ESTACIONES
8.1. Calidad del Agua (campañas desde 1997 a 2013)
In adverse situation man moves from one place to another in search of food, protection and breeding, etc. The process, by which animal moves from one place to another by their (it’s) own effort, is called locomotion. The system, which gives the structure, definite shape and protection different organs from injury and helps in locomotion, is called skeletal system. We will be able to know about structure of skeletal system, it’s function and its way of protection.
At the end of this chapter, we will be able to –
- Describe human skeleton.
- Describe the role of skeleton in firmness and locomotion. - Explain the function of bone and bone joints.
- Explain the function of muscles.
- Explain the functions of tendon and ligament.
- Describe the cause, symptoms, remedy of osteoporosis. - Explain the cause, symptom and remedy of arthritis. - Assume the cause of osteoporosis and arthritis.
- Draw and label different parts of skeleton.
Introduction of human skeleton:
For the construction of a house atfirst a structural frame work is essential. Skeleton is the frame work of our body. The human
skeleton is composed of in combination of long, small, flat, unequal 206 bones. It gives the definite shape to the body and protects the internal organs, such as : heart, lungs, stomach, intestine, brain etc. Without strong bony structure a fixed shape is not possible. All bones and other associated parts together constitute the skeleton which consists of bones and cartilages. Bone joints are connected together with the various parts of skeleton and assists in movement. Bones are remaining attached with the voluntary muscles that helps movement of different organs. The skeletal system is composed of bones, cartilages, ligaments, tendons, bone joints and muscles.
Human skeleton is divided into parts, as- (1) Exoskeleton and (2) Endoskeleton.
(1) Exoskeleton : The parts of the skeleton exist outside the body e.g. it includes nail, hair etc.
(2) Endoskeleton : The skeleton of man means endoskeleton which can not be seen from outside. The endoskeleton mainly composed of cartilages and bones.
Role of skeleton in firmness and locomotion:
Functions of skeleton: The skeleton does the following functions such as :
(a) Structure and firmness of the body- The skeleton forms the hard structure of the
body and gives a definite shape to the body. It joins lower organs with the upper organs.
(b) Protection – Skull protects brain, spinal cord within the vertebral column or
backbone, lungs and heart within the thorax. Muscles remain attached with the skeleton and skeletal muscles involved in carrying the weight of the body.
(c) Movement and Locomotion: Hands, legs, shoulder or pectoral girdle and pelvic or
hip girdle help in movement. Muscular system has an important role in this act. Due to the attachment of muscles with the bones we can move the bones and we can move.
(d) Production of red blood cells- Bone marrow produces the red blood cells.
Sternum
column
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(e) Storage of mineral salts – Bones store mineral salts (calcium, potassium,
phosphorus). That’s why the bones remain hard and strong.
Bone – Bone is the modified form of connective tissue. It is the hardest tissue of the
body which is composed of organic substances. The matrix of the bone is hard and brittle. The bone cells remain scattered within the matrix. Bone cells are called osteopath. These cells are branched and look like a spider. Bone is mainly composed of phosphorous, potassium and calcium different compounds. Besides it contains approximately 40%-50% parts of water. Living bone cells contain about 40% organic and 60% inorganic substances. Sufficient vitamin -D and calcium enriched foods are necessary. Due to the deficiency of these substances the normal growth of bones is resisted / obstructed / hindered.
Cartilage: Cartilage is not hard just like bone. These are relatively soft and elastic or
flexible. It is the different form of connective tissue. These cells are found solitary or pairs and densely scattered out within the matrix. From the cartilaginous tissues a kind of hard semitransparent organic substances are secreted. Matrix is composed of chondrin. It is mild blue or bluish in color. In living cartilaginous cell the protoplasm is very transparent, with round nucleus and cavity is noticed within the chondrin. These are called capsule or lacunae, chondrocytes and chondroblasts remains within it. All cartilages are enclosed by a layer of fibrons connective tissues that is called perichondrium. This layer is glazing white in colour. So, cartilage looks white, bluish and glazy shining. There are various types / kinds of cartilage within our body. Cartilages are found in different joints, or articulating surface of some of bones. e.g. the cartilage in pinna.
Bone joint or articulation: The joints in between two
or more bones are called bone joints. In every joint, bones are joined firmly together by flexible elastic tissues called ligaments. So the bones can not be dislocated easily. The joint helps in the movement of limbs. All the joints of our body are not of same type. Some of it is fixed, e.g. – intervertebral joint. Again some of it is freely moveable e.g. – joints of hands and legs.
Synovial joint: A bone joint is a joint where two bones
touch and make a simple synovial bone joint. When
more than two bones make a joint it is called complex synovial joint. A joint, which is composed of a capsule, synovial membrane, a synovial cavity with a kind of lubrication
fluid or synovial fluid, is called synovial joint. The parts of the joint are the articulating surface of bone, covered with smooth cartilage, synovial fluid and synovial membrane. Synovial joints have ligaments for holding the bones together collectively to form a strong fibrous capsule. The synovial fluid and the cartilage of the joint reduce friction and less energy is used for the movement of the joint. Types example – Bone joints are of different types.
1. Fixed joint – The bones are joined firmly, so it is immoveable example – joint of cranium.
2. Slightly movable joint – These joints are joined with one another still it has small sliding surface. So, we can bend the body example – joint of back bone.
3. Freely movable joint – These joints can be moved easily. Example wrist joint ball and socket joint.
Ball and socket joint – Joints where the round one head of the bone fits into a cup
shaped socket or cavity of another bone in such a way that allows the bone’s movement in all planes.
Hinge joint: The elbows, knees, joints of the finger are the examples of hinge joints. It
moves like a hinge of a door. It can be moved in one plane only.
Activities of Muscles: The muscular system consists of involuntary muscles of internal
organs and the wall of the blood vessels, cardiac muscles of heart and the voluntary muscles are attached with the bones. You have learned earlier about muscles. Muscular system performs various important functions such as :
- Movement of organs, helps, movement, placing the organs in orderly manner and balancing.
- Muscular system along with the skeletal system gives a definite structure that stores energy for future and muscles stores glycogen.
- The cardia muscles are of special type, it maintains the heart beat and blood circulation.
Role of bones and muscles in human locomotion:
The muscles and bones perform important role in locomotion. The skeleton constitutes the structure of the body and muscular system makes the covering of the structure. Voluntary muscles remain attached with the bones by a strong’s elastic part named a tendon. Muscle contraction is the result of nerve impulses. With the withdrawal of impulses the muscle again stretches / extends or relaxes. This contraction and relaxation of muscles, attached with the bones, help in movement. In this way muscles help in stretching / extension of limbs and fold the organ, contraction of the muscle draws a bone or limb away from the
body or towards the body, helps in lowering a part, lifting a part or rotating a part etc. The role of muscles in the movement of bones is described with an example : observe how muscles work to bend or extend the elbow. The arm can bend at the elbow. The biceps muscle is attached to scapula at the top and radius at the bottom. By the stimulation of voluntary nerves when it contracts, it pulls the radius and ulna towards the body, so the arm bends. At that time triceps muscle relaxes. To push the arm back down again quite opposite phenomenon occurs. That means by the stimulation of voluntary nerves the triceps muscle contracts and straightens or extends the radius and ulna. At the same time biceps relaxes. In this way we can bend and extend our arm by the simultaneous contraction of biceps and triceps muscle. In this way various muscles help in the movement of different organs.
Tendon and ligament:
When we say to you that muscles remain attached with the bones or one bone remains attached with another bone with the help of a band. Then a question may arise to you how and why it happens. Muscles are joined to bones by tendons. Tendons are composed of dense, white fibrous connective tissues. The tissues are composed of unbranched, wavy and
shiny white fibers. White fibres are scattered in the matrix. The fibers are unbranched and white in colour. These are composed of parallel bundles. Numerous fibres form bundle. These bundles together make a bunch of bundles. The outer surface of these bundles is surrounded by areolar tissue and make a big bunch. It is called peritendium. The space between the bundles remains fibroblast cells. Blood vessels, lymphatic ducts and nerves enters into the tendon through areolar tissue. It is flexible but inelastic. In this way tendon is formed.
The fibres of tendon are attached with the sarcolema of muscle fibres. At the junction between muscles and tendons the areolar tissues that surround the bunch of bundles of tendon forms a continuous connection with the muscle bundles to build the connection more strong. Tendon is strong and has less possibility to tear or break than that of muscle or bone. Tendon becomes a rope like structure which remains attached with bone and constitutes a structure of the body that renders firmness, helps in formation of ligament and makes a mechanical defense against pressure.
Bones are attached to each other by a thin cloth like soft but strong, elastic band like structure. These are ligaments. It is composed of the combination of white and yellow fibres. But number of elastic yellow fibres is excessive. Fine, branched net work of elastic fibres remain scattered in this kind of tissue. The fibres stay separately instead of staying in bundles. These have elasticity and are composed of elastic protein. There are fibroblast cells in the fibres. As a hinge attaches the door with its frame, in the same way tendon and ligament are firmly attached to the bones. So the organ can bend, stretch and move and the bones are not dislocated or separated.
Draw the table in your note book and fill it up.
Characteristics Tendon Ligament
Structure Function Elasticity
Osteoporosis : You have known earlier, calcium is an important ingredient for the
formation of bone and for its strength. Calcium and vitamin enriched food is essential for the growth of bones. Osteoporesis is a calcium deficiency disease.
Generally elderly males and females suffer from this disease. there is every possibility of having this disease, males who are taking medicine with steroid and the females after their menopause. Those, who lead lazy life, do less physical labour and are suffering from arthritis, have the chance of being attacked with this disease.
Cause : This disease develops due to the deficiency of mineral salt particularly of
calcium. After reaching the menopause stage the density and thickness of bones decline in female, bones become brittle.
Symptoms :
- thickness decrease, - muscle strength reduces, - feel back pain,
- pain in bones.
Diagnosis : The disease can be diagnosed by examining the density of the bone with the
help of density measuring equipment. At the preliminary stage of the disease the symptoms are not noticed. Suddenly hip bones or any other bone fructures even or minor shock.
Remedy:
- Elderly people about 50 years should take 1200 milligram calcium. - Take skimmed milk and other diary products.
- Taking orange juice, green vegetables, Soya product and calcium enriched food. Prevention:
- Taking food of vitamin – ‘D’ and calcium. enriched - Regular exercise.
- Take balanced diet.
Arthritis : Arthritis is a type of rheumatic disease. Prolong suffering with rheumatic
fever and are not treated properly may have the possibility of being attacked with this disease. Mostly the elders suffer from this disease. In case younger’s joint pain may be symptoms of any other disease. Such as : Rheumatic fever or tuberculosis.
Symptoms:
- Inflammation and pain in bone joints. - Stiffen bone joint.
- Get pain in articular movement. - Joint swelling.
Remedy : The disease is not fully cured in elders. But the following measures may
relieve the disease to some extent. - To avoid hard labour.
- Take deep heat in the affected joint.
- Do light exercise to keep the joint moveable. - Avoid pulse (dul) type of food.
- According to the doctor’s advice taking pain relieving medicine and proper treatment can relieve form this disease.
- Live in the healthy environment.
Prevention:
- Try to live in clean open air and well ventilated house. - Regular exercise.
- Taking balanced and fibrous food.
Exercise
Short answer question
1. What is called bone joint?
2. Mention five functions of skeleton?
3. Find out the differences between tendon and ligament? 4. What are the characteristics of synovial joint?
5. Mention the differences between bone and cartilage.
Essay type questions
1. Write down the causes and symptoms of osteoporosis.
Multiple choice questions:
1. Which one is the characteristic of bone?
a) elastic b) soft
c) strong d) fibrous
Work : Collect information about life style, in taking of food of the women who are
above 50 years. Find out the cause of osteoporosis, arthritis among them and write down in your note book.
2. Tissues of tendon’s are – i) white and glassy ii) unbranched and waved iii) fibrous and in cluster
Which one is correct?
a) i and ii b) i and iii
c) ii and iii d) i, ii and iii
Observe the stem and answer question 3 and 4.
60 years old Rahima Begum can not work. Doctor has said she is suffering from osteoporosis due to calcium deficiency.
3. Which one is the symptom of this disease?
a) increase the density of bone b) bone becomes brittle c) feel pain in waist d) increasing muscle strength 4. Which one is the preventive measure of disease -
i) taking roughage based food ii) to avoid lazy life iii) taking less vitamin ‘D’ enriched food
which one is correct?
a) i and ii b) i and iii
c) ii and iii d) i, ii and iii
Creative question
1. 12 years old Binita is healthy and restless. She spends most of the day time by running and playing. One day while she was running he fell down and her ligaments of the leg injured.
a) What is bone?
b) What do you mean by Arthritis?
c) Explain why the injured part of Binita’s body is compaired with hinge.
d) What type of co-ordination is necessary to carry out the activities done by Binita – analyze it.
2.
a) What is tendon?
b) What do you mean by osteoporosis?
c) Explain why the cell structure of ‘x’ part is different?