In the following I examine the influence of two major European educational policies on the development of the dual study programs: firstly, the Bologna process and the introduction of Bachelor degrees and, thereafter, the Copen- hagen process and the implementation of the European Qualification Frame- work (EQF) in Germany.
The Bologna Process and the Introduction of Bachelor Degrees
1) Shorter Study Duration and Reduced Attractiveness of Berufsintegrierende and Berufsbegleitende Dual Study Programs
The Bachelor degree has been widely applied to dual study programs throughout Germany (Minks, Netz, and Völk, 2011: IV). The implementation of Bachelor degrees in dual study programs – as part of the Bologna process – had the straightforward consequence that these programs, which used to take four-and-a-half or five years, were mostly shortened to three or four
102 According to Schindler and Reimer (2011: 273), “[s]emi-tertiary as well as vocational training alternatives attract less privileged social strata due to the provision of salary.”
years. This shortening poses a challenge to organizations offering dual study programs, as it leads to a temporal compression of the curricula, which has reduced the time allocated to practical work experience in the programs (Interview DE5; IHK Hessen, 2011).
Another effect of implementing Bachelor programs is that it reduces at- tractiveness of berufsintegrierende and berufsbegleitende dual study pro- grams, whose number has diminished relative to ausbildungsintegrierende and praxisintegrierende dual study programs.103 One reason for this is that for people who are already vocationally qualified and sometimes have several years of work experience, the new Bachelor programs are less attractive than the former vocational academy diploma (Diplom Berufsakademie), which was more or less seen as equivalent to today’s Master qualification (Interview DE5). Moreover, for these people it is not as lucrative to enroll in a Bachelor program that does not necessarily increase their prospects of a pay rise given the current remuneration rates for holders of Bachelor degrees (Interview DE5). Another disincentive is that the financial support for HE studies for which individuals can apply (if they are eligible) is usually rather small compared to the salary they are accustomed to.104 Thus, one downside of the introduction of Bachelor degrees in dual study programs is that the berufsin- tegrierende and berufsbegleitende dual study programs – which more directly address those with a VET certificate and work experience – seem to be nega- tively affected by the Bologna process.
2) The Accreditation Process for Bachelor Degrees
This aforementioned trend towards an academic drift is furthered by the accreditation procedure that is part of the implementation of Bachelor de- grees within the Bologna process. Generally, accreditation implies that state- recognized Bachelor and Master programs have to comply with predefined formal standards (see European Association for Quality Assurance in Higher Education, 2005 for details). In fact, the Bologna Declaration states that HE institutes should also recognize credits acquired outside of HE (Bologna Declaration, 1999). Nevertheless, these standards have been criticized for being biased towards traditional university education (Beschoner, 2009: 13– 14). With a view to dual study programs, one of the major challenges with regard to the accreditation process is the need to ensure that competences that are acquired during the practical training phases are also validly measured and awarded ECTS credits (Mattes, Zawacki-Richter, and Barthel, 2006: 42). Interestingly, the accreditation agencies that are responsible for the accredita-
103 Berufsbegleitende dual study programs do not qualify as hybrids (see Section 6.2). 104 Examples of financial assistance schemes include the Federal Training Assistance Act
(Bundesausbildungsförderungsgesetz, BAföG), scholarships for professional advancement (Aufstiegsstipendium), and further education scholarships (Weiterbildungsstipendium) (see, e.g., SBB, 2012 for details).
tion of Bachelor degrees in Germany stipulate that credits for the firm-based part can only be given if it is thoroughly integrated into the dual study pro- gram (ASIIN, 2007: 59). However, no common understanding exists as to what practical competences at HE level should be or how they can be meas- ured (see Reischl, 2008: 56). From this perspective, it is problematic that the ECTS credit system is not (yet) attuned to accounting for actual practices in the firm (Interview DE10; see also Beschoner, 2009: 13–14). In fact, the accreditation agencies often put a restrictive upper limit on credits that can be attained from the in-company practical work phases. There are examples of dual study programs that previously took five years to complete but now – with the shortened study duration – did not manage to get accredited as the responsible accreditation agency would only grant up to 30 ECTS credit points for work experience. In this way, the accreditation procedure for Bachelor degrees is reducing the scope for the duality of dual study programs or the extent to which VET and HE are being mutually integrated:
They [the dual study programs, LG] all had their quality – the higher education institutes made sure of that. And obviously it is nice to be able to offer an accred- ited Bachelor degree. But if this is at the expense of the duality and the integra- tion, then I think that is questionable. (Interview DE8, translation LG)
Thus, the accreditation process seems to be negatively affecting the hybrid character of dual study programs. One reason why providers of dual study programs are nevertheless complying with the standards that the accreditation procedure sets is that the Bachelor title increases both their domestic reputa- tion and their international recognition. Indeed, due to the implementation of Bachelor degrees – which has become the global standard for first-cycle HE degrees – this international recognition of dual study programs can be con- sidered as good (Interview DE1).
Another point that relates to the impact of the Bologna process on dual study programs is the gradual transformation of many of the vocational academies into HE institutes.
3) The Upgrading of Vocational Academies into Hochschulen
Over the last few years many vocational academies have been upgraded into Hochschulen (HE institutes). Examples can be found in Baden-Württemberg, where the vocational academies were merged and relabeled Duale Hochschule (cooperative university) by the Länder government in 2009 and thus formally upgraded within the organizational field of HE. There are a number of reasons for this transformation. Crucially, this upgrading eases the accreditation process that is necessary to grant Bachelor degrees, which, in turn, enhances the international recognition of dual study programs (Inter- view DE8). According to Beschoner (2009: 14), another major incentive for Baden-Württemberg was a fiscal one: The General Agreement on Trade in
Services (GATS) – a treaty of the World Trade Organization (WTO) aimed at breaking down trade barriers also in the field of education – calls into ques- tion state subsidies for an organizational form such as vocational academies. That is, as vocational academies are not formally part of the state education system (which the state is free to finance according to the GATS treaty), but are part of further education, the GATS treaty problematizes state subsidies for vocational academies. However, as the newly created Duale Hochschule is located within HE, Baden-Württemberg is free to finance it. In addition, this upgrading implies that the Duale Hochschule Baden-Württemberg can participate in the federal funding schemes for HE, such as the Higher Educa- tion Pact (Hochschulpakt) or the Excellence Initiative (Beschoner, 2009).
It remains to be seen to what extent this transformation from vocational academies into Hochschulen implies academic drift (see Beschoner, 2009: 15). However, it is interesting to note that some of the Duale Hochschulen are starting to engage in research activities. It is an open question whether this will crowd out and limit the involvement of small and medium-sized firms in dual study programs, as these are more cost-sensitive than large firms and more interested in the practical relevance of dual study programs.105
Finally, this chapter explores the impact of the Copenhagen process on dual study programs. In theory, one would expect the Copenhagen process to be better attuned to account for practice-based learning phases, which charac- terize these programs, than the Bologna process.
The Copenhagen Process and the EQF
The Copenhagen process signifies an attempt by VET stakeholders to catch up with the rapid developments that the Bologna process has sparked in European HE systems. The Copenhagen process was introduced in 2002, three years after the Bologna process was signed. The EQF is one of the most central policy tools within the Copenhagen process. The German Qualifica- tion Framework (DQR) that is being developed differs slightly from the original EQF.106 However, like the EQF it is made up of eight levels (see AK DQR, 2011). The VET stakeholders try to use the negotiations around the EQF to make themselves heard vis-à-vis HE (Interview DE6).
So far the negotiations on the allocation of qualifications to the DQR have rather led to a number of inconsistencies that thwart this framework’s intention to promote permeability between the fields of VET and HE. For example, regular IVET qualifications of three to three-and-a-half years are located at level 4 in the DQR (BMBF, 2012b) but the KMK wanted to place
105 Firms tend to have to invest more to offer a place on a dual study program than on a dual apprenticeship program (see, e.g., Harney, Hartz, and Weischet, 2001: 80 on the example of vocational academies). Therefore, for small and medium-sized firms (Mittelständler) dual study programs are a considerable investment (Becker, 2012).
106 See Appendix 11.3 for a copy of the EQF.
the Abitur one level higher than the qualifications from dual apprenticeship training (i.e., at DQR level 5 instead of DQR level 4), while the federal government and the VET stakeholders opposed the KMK’s position.107 This resulted in tough negotiations between VET and HE stakeholders. As it was not possible to reach a compromise, in 2012 the allocation of qualifications from general schooling and academic secondary schools to the DQR matrix was postponed for five years (Blings, 2012: 18; BMBF, 2012b). Furthermore, the Meister qualification was allocated to the same level as the Bachelor qualification (namely DQR level 6) (BMBF, 2012b). However, most HE stakeholders make a point of stressing that allocating the Meister to level 6 does not at all imply that it also grants access to academic Master programs (see Spöttl, 2012: 83). Rather, according to a KMK decision in 2009, a Meis- ter is allowed to access Bachelor programs (KMK, 2009a). These two exam- ples indicate that, on the one hand, the debate on the DQR has sparked an unprecedented level of interaction between stakeholders from VET and HE. However, on the other hand, these discussions to some extent have had the unintended effect of showing up and, with that, reinforcing the differences between VET and HE.
In theory, the DQR would have provided an opportunity to describe the dual study programs through learning outcomes in order to optimally account for both their elements of vocational training and academic education (Inter- view DE8). That is, the key principle of the EQF is its learning outcome orientation. This could be expected to be useful when it comes to coping with the complexity of the hybrid dual study programs. However, the development of methods to measure berufliche Handlungkompetenz (occupational deci- sion-making competence) is lagging behind in the DQR process (Spöttl, 2012: 89). Beyond that, the dynamic around the DQR has taken a turn that implies that – rather than evaluating each qualification along separate dimen- sions (knowledge, skills, and qualifications) – each type of qualification (e.g., the Bachelor) is now categorically allocated to one of the levels of the DQR. This wholesale allocation of qualifications to just one level contradicts the EQF’s basic idea of describing qualifications in a more detailed fashion, which would imply that a specific qualification can be assigned to different levels in the three dimensions of the qualification framework (knowledge, skills, and competences) (Interview DE8). However, the DQR locates dual study programs together with all other Bachelor programs in the same field of the matrix. Thus, for example, all Bachelor programs will be classified as DQR level 6 (AK DQR, 2011: 3) – without further consideration of the specificities of dual study programs (including their institutional proximity to the VET system). While this classification will probably not be detrimental in
107 The DQR negotiations have also been affected by regulatory competences being divided up on account of German educational federalism, which reduces the capacity of the state to coordinate and devise educational policies (see Klenk, 2011: 242).
regard to the expansion of dual study programs – as it legitimizes their HE status – it nevertheless fails to recognize the hybridity of these programs.
6.4 Summary
Table 13 provides an overview of some of the key historical developments described above. The first vocational academy was created in the early 1970s in Baden-Württemberg (without much political forethought). The hybridiza- tion – and increase in institutional permeability – that the dual study pro- grams represent at the nexus of VET and HE is unexpected from the theoretical perspective of the German educational schism described in Part I of Chapter 3 (see also Graf, 2013b). The dual study principle then diffused to other Länder and, in addition, was taken up by universities of applied scienc- es.108 The actual arrangement of dual study programs varies considerably. The specific implementation of dual study programs not only depends strong- ly on characteristics of the host organization (e.g., university of applied sciences vs. vocational academy; public vs. private organization) but also on the characteristics and corporate culture of the respective firm. In this con- text, the expansion and maintenance of hybridization in the form of dual study programs is facilitated by their location in a niche between VET and HE, which allows for the creative reinterpretation of traditional institutional elements from both fields (see also Graf, 2012).
However, the current Europeanization processes are rather blind to the hybrid specificities of dual study programs. Both the introduction of Bachelor degrees and the implementation of the EQF imply some academic drift with regard to dual study programs (as these move closer to HE). At the same time, the introduction of Bachelor degrees was a vehicle for the vocational academies to establish themselves within the HE sector. The new Bachelor degrees as well as the trend to upgrade vocational academies into Duale Hochschulen implies that the institutional divide between VET and HE is, on the one hand, widening (due to the drift of the dual study programs towards HE) and, on the other hand, narrowing (as the dual study principle is further expanding within the HE field). Furthermore, the Copenhagen process in the form of the EQF does not seem to be developing in such a way as to strengthen the link between dual study programs and the VET field. Due to the rigid interpretation of the DQR matrix in Germany, the framework (so far) fails to acknowledge the hybridity of dual study programs.
108 This, however, does not imply that universities of applied sciences are giving up their attempts to match classic universities in terms of academic reputation.
Table 13: Stylized overview of key historical developments related to hy- bridization between VET and HE in Germany
General description Pattern of institutional change
Institutional permeabil- ity between VET and HE Phase I: Genesis of Dual Studies
Early 1970s
Founding of first the vocational academies in Baden-Württemberg
Layering in the form of dual study programs at the nexus of dual apprenticeship and HE
Increase due to hybridity of dual studies
Phase II: Further Evolution of Dual Studies
1970s– Beginning of expansion of dual study principle
Diffusion to & reinterpre- tation in different Länder
Increase due to expan- sion of dual studies
1980s– Dual study programs start to be offered at universi- ties of applied sciences as well
Strategic redeployment of dual study principle by universities of applied sciences
Increase due to further expansion of dual studies
Impact of current Europeanization processes
1999– Dual study programs adopt Bachelor degrees
Drift of dual study programs towards HE
Increase as dual studies gain in popularity; decrease due to tenden- cy towards academic drift
2009– Trend towards upgrading vocational academies into Duale Hochschulen (e.g., in Baden- Württemberg)
Drift of dual study programs towards HE
Increase due to further approximation to HE; decrease due to trend towards academic drift
Source: Author’s illustration
By adopting the dual study programs, German firms seem to have found a way to adapt the dual principle in the face of changing environmental condi- tions (e.g., the need to overcome rigidly defined occupational categories in the face of structural economic change). However, the dual study programs also imply a certain degree of de-standardization relative to traditional dual apprenticeship training. Arguably, firms try to benefit from this more liberal- ized institutional environment – compared to dual apprenticeship training at upper-secondary level – to advance their interests. One indicator for this is that there are only few employer/works council agreements (Betriebsverein- barungen) regarding dual study programs (Busse, 2009: 20). That is, while dual studies are expanding the dual training principle to HE, this also implies greater capitalist autonomy for firms given that dual study programs are not subject to the same corporatist regulation as traditional dual apprenticeship training. This point will be elaborated in more detail in Chapter 9.
The following two chapters explore whether Austria and Switzerland dis- play a similar pattern of development at the nexus of VET and HE as does Germany.