The policy process is complex and implementation is but one part of this process. Implementation is inextricably related to, and interdependent with, the other parts. Thus, a conceptual overview of the entire policy process is required in order to provide an
adequate understanding. Smith (1973b) sees policy implementation as a tension-generating process in society. Implementation, in this context, is the creation and management of tensions and the use of power and resources to achieve policy ends. Policy formulation and implementation take place within a social, economic and political environment that is in a state of constant change. Discrepancies and tensions are a normal part of implementation, as they are the essence of politics, and implementation of public policies is merely an extension of politics into a different arena. Once public policies are regarded as tension-generating forces in society, it is necessary to consider the context of the implementation of policies - the policy relevant components that form the tension-generating matrix. Smith (1973b: 202) identifies four such components that are important in the policy implementation process: (1) the idealized policy, (2) the implementing organization, (3) the target group, and (4) environmental factors.
In order to analyse dynamic policy processes, Smith (1973b: 203) developed the framework shown schematically in Figure 1.1:
Figure: 2.1
Model of Policy Implementation Analysis
TENSIONS ■> POLICY TRANSACTIONS INSTITUTIONS FEEDBACK t TARCET CROUP POLICY MAKING PROCESS ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS IMPLEMENTATION ORGANIZATION IDEALIZED POLICY Source : Smith (1973b: 203)
The components of the model are as follows: 1• The Policy-Making Process
The policy making process is defined as a process through which a particular policy or program has been formulated. Several important elements to be considered in analysing the policy-making process are:
a. Consultation: Were there any consultations with and active participation during the policy formulation from both the target groups affected by the policy and from the implementing organization? Was participation encouraged or blocked?
b. Time: Was the policy formed in a time of crisis and thus done quickly, or was the policy developed in a slow and deliberative process?
c. Source of the policy: Was the policy an indigenously- derived and funded endeavour or were its origins well outside the community or country of its application?
d. Expediency or Analysis: Was there analysis of the problem and consideration of alternatives when the policy was formulated. Or, was the policy formed to pacify group
interest or for other expedient reasons?
2. The Idealized Policy
The idealized policy is defined as the idealized patterns of interaction that the policy makers are attempting to induce. There are four relevant categories of variables of idealized policy:
a. The Formal Policy: This is the formal decisional statement, law, or program that the government is attempting to implement. In short, what form does the policy take?
b. The Type of Policy. There can be three types of policy. First, policies may be complex or they may be simple in nature. This distinction is similar to that between broad, non-incremental policies and small-scale incremental ones. Second, policies may be categorized as organizational or non-organizational. An organizational
policy requires the modification, or the establishment, of a formal organization. Non-organizational policies, by contrast, call for the establishment of patterns of interaction outside the formal organizational context. Third, policies also may be classified as distributive
(to provide services, such as housing and welfare), redistributive (to re-allocate the resources within a society), regulatory (to coordinate individuals and groups in order to achieve objectives), or emotive- symbolic (statement of very desirable goals but never expected to be implemented, such as "land to the landless" or "universal literacy") (Smith, c.1987, unpub.).
c. The Program. There are three aspects of the policy program. First, intensity of support, which is the degree to which the government is committed to the implementation of the policy. Second, the source of the policy: is the policy required to satisfy needs and demands in the society or was it formulated with little demand or support? Third, the scope of the policy: is the policy broad in nature and universal in scope or is it a concentration upon a small geographic or subject area?
d. Images of the Policy. It is essential to consider the images that a policy evokes in the society. The images of those affected by the policy and those who implement the policy are most important.
3. The Target Group
The target group is defined as those who are reguired to adapt to the new patterns of interaction created by the policy. They are the people within organizations or groups who are most affected by the policy. They may be recipients, beneficiaries, clients or even victims of the policy. Included within the target group are the ' interested others * , who have a stake in the outcome of the policy and who join the implementation process either in support or in opposition to the target group or the policy. It is they who must change to meet the demands of the policy. Several factors are relevant here:
a. The degree of organization or institutionalization of the target group.
b. The leadership of the target group: leadership can be aligned for or against the policy, or it may be indifferent to the policy. The nature of the leadership is also important.
c. The prior policy experience of the target group: has the group been affected by governmental policies in the past? What has been their experience and response to governmental policy? Are they compliant, rebellious or
4. The Implementing Organization
The implementing organization is responsible for the implementation of the policy. In most instances, the organization is a unit of the government bureaucracy. Of all the aspects of implementation, it is the implementing organization that has attracted most attention from implementation analysts. This may be due to the well- entrenched view that the bureaucrats are behind policy implementation failures and an understanding of, and ability to change, their behaviour is paramount to improving the standard of implementation.
Three key variables should be considered in the implementation of policy:
a. The structure and personnel: The stability of the structure and the qualifications of the personnel who must implement the policy are important to understanding implementation. An unstable administrative organization and unqualified personnel may reduce the capacity to implement.
b. The leadership of the administrative organization: This variable, like the leadership of the target group, refers to the style and nature of the leadership.
c. The implementing program capacity: The program and capacity of the implementing organization refers to the intensity of and care taken in organizing for the implementation and to the general capacity of the
organization to meet the objectives of program implementation.