''Quality is never an accident. It is always the result of intelligent effort''. John Ruskin (1819–1900).
This section highlights key issues and lessons taken from the literature and the experience of many countries in the operation of QA and which deserve consideration by stakeholders in the effectiveness of systems and processes.
Brown (2004) outlines six key requirements for an effective system of QA:
The underlying purpose must be improvement, not accountability; the regime must focus on what is necessary for quality improvement; the regime must bolster, not undermine, self-regulation; the arrangements must be meaningful to, and engage, all those involved; the arrangements must promote diversity and innovation; there must be adequate quality control (of the regime); there must be clear accountability (of the agency); there must be proper coordination with other regulators or would be regulators (Brown (2004).
Reichert (2008) has argued that real attention to QA requires taking into account the achievement of two sets of conditions. The conditions at the level of the individual include: a confidence in the benefit of assessment, a desire to reveal weaknesses and readiness in time and effort when there is a need to improve performance. Required conditions at an institutional level involve: the ability to understand the results of evaluation, a sufficient degree of institutional autonomy, institutional leadership capable of orchestrating hard and long-term changes, plus the availability of resources to support changes and promote initiatives.
Martin and Stella (2007) asserted that three significant points should be kept in mind when considering QA projects in HE (pp. 104–105):
1. "Quality assurance is not an aim in itself". In general, it is a mechanism to support the development of HE. In particular, it is an instrument used by governments or agencies with the authority to protect the stakeholders from a low-quality education, and to improve the quality of academic departments and institutions.
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2. "Quality assurance has a cost: both financial and human". Moreover, the QAPs take up part of academics' time, which normally is used for teaching and research. Therefore, the continuation of QAPs depends on proving its effectiveness as an instrument to improve the quality of HE.
3. "The existence of a quality assurance mechanism does not automatically mean that national HE provision is of good quality". It is likely that QAPs help in identifying difficulties and required resources to improve the quality of education. However, it is not the solution when academic institutions are suffering from a lack of qualified human resources, and a deficit in infrastructure and equipment, as is the case in some developing countries.
In addition, some key issues discussed in the literature need to be considered as essential elements to enhance the operation of QA:
Work conditions: Lim (1999) observed that elite universities’ experience in developed
countries evidenced that the achievement of QA objectives in improving academic activities becomes significant when there are: well-qualified staff, high enough salaries to live comfortably, upgrades are based on performance and not on political or social relations, availability of academic freedom, working in an environment where the personal relationships are stable and the commitment of leaders and managers toward continued quality improvement. Lim argued that an attempt to implement QA systems in poor working conditions would be a waste of time.
Training for quality: Oakland (2003) has stated: "The essence of changing attitudes is to
gain acceptance for the need to change, and for this to happen it is essential to provide relevant information, convey good practices, and generate interest, ideas and awareness through excellent communication processes" (p. 315). Achieving success in the QAPs depends on how stakeholders grasp the concepts of quality, implementation planning, administrative structures, roles, through training on practices and working tools (Darandari et al., 2009).
Cooperation and formation of partnerships: The cooperation and formation of
partnerships with reputed educational institutions helps educational institutions to learn and manage academic and quality standards and practices. Partnership helps startup institutions
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in the field of QA to build appropriate traditions of quality in a timely manner, which helps them achieve high levels of standards (San and Kong, 2012).
Organisational structure: The establishment of specialised offices to supervise the
processes of institutional and programmatic QA is necessary to consolidate a culture of quality, and to enhance the participation of stakeholders in the processes and improvements (San and Kong, 2012). In addition, it is essential to build high-level coordination between all committees and units involved in QA operations (João Rosa et al., 2006).
Quality culture, quality assurance and the culture of the institution: The success of the
operation of QAPs depends on the acceptance and engagement of all stakeholders in the organisation, and this requires the availability of an appropriate organisational culture. The literature refers to a strong correlation between organisational culture and quality systems in institutions. An understanding of this relationship helps in the successful implementation of quality mechanisms. Therefore, the quality mechanisms must be formulated in line with the culture of the organisation, or vice versa (Klein et al., 1995, Vettori et al., 2007). Harvey and Stensaker (2008) emphasise that the success of QA initiatives depends on a practical investment in an institution’s culture, identity and organisational environment. Harvey (2007) argues that it is pointless to implement QAPs if they are inappropriate to the strategic place of quality in the organisation, do not reflect the normal working practices of staff or do not become a natural part of their daily lives.
Quality assurance systems and culture: It is necessary that the QA system is appropriate
to the circumstances and culture of developing countries: it should not be a simple copying of developed countries. Importing a system from an advanced country without adapting it to be compatible with the realities of a developing country may lead to critical problems or failure (Amin et al., 2005).
Dissemination of a culture of quality: There are many approaches to promoting a culture
of QA in HE. They include running awareness campaigns about the importance of QA through the media, seminars, conferences and internet sites. It is also important to provide training for faculty members to meet the requirements, and training of those responsible for operations management (Amin et al., 2005).
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Leadership and management: The experience of global HEIs demonstrates that the
successful implementation of QA depends on the existence of committed management that has a sufficient capability to accommodate the complexities associated with its operations. It is necessary that senior management be characterised by stability, perseverance, commitment and attention to all levels (Sorensen et al., 2005, p. 327). Bush and Coleman (2000) have highlighted that; ''Good management makes a difference to the quality of schools and colleges and to the educational outcomes of their students'' (p. 3).
Data accessibility: Sanyal and Martin argue that institutions of HE must develop internal
information management systems that empowers internal and external stakeholders to access information required during QA operations (Sanyal and Martin, 2007, p. 16).
Engagement: It emerges as crucial that every employee within an educational institution
has an adequate awareness of quality education (Jani, 2011). The success of QAPs relies on stakeholders' participation and cooperation and a high level of transparency and candour (Amin et al., 2005). More training and research is required to understand the emotional response of individuals towards QAPs, such as controls and auditing. Failure to read the behaviour of individuals may make them defensive, which could lead to conflicts (Le Grange, 2014).
Commitment: Typically, well-known international universities and institutions adopt QA
practices internally and externally as part of the overall framework of practices for QA, accreditation and recognition of qualifications. Without doubt, this is important in order to improve the quality continuously. These strategies are effective if institutions are seriously committed to the practices and standards of excellence in QA – otherwise the strategies and tools mean nothing (San and Kong, 2012).
Maintenance and development: Quality assurance requires compatible management and
staff, strengthening institutional objectives to improve operations, or reform education. In addition, institutions need to adopt effective procedures for the development and maintenance of the quality culture between evaluations (Kettunen, 2012).
Effective operation: Reichert (2008) has highlighted that there are a number of factors
that play important roles in the enhancement of QAPs. Academics, administrators and senior management should be willing to look at the evaluations and recommendations
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seriously. The frequency of QAP cycles must be reasonable; repetition of operations may lead to fatigue and thus reduce the desire and motivation to participate. Feedback from peers is a crucial element in the assessment of QAPs. Taking into account recommendations emerges as an important factor in the improvement and the achievement of quality objectives. (Darandari et al., 2009). Feedback should be well organised to ensure decisions are taken according to reliable information. In addition, review data must be available at the institutional or national level and be utilised for improvement.
4.13 Summary
This chapter explored the global contemporary trends that influenced the recent development of HE and how QA developed in Saudi Arabia's HE. It aimed to provide a background overview of quality and QA and to consider factors identified as significant in implementing systems of QA in HE. Definitions of quality and QA have been discussed from multiple perspectives; reflecting global influences and trends. However, differing perspectives may create confusion that could adversely affect the operation of QA.
The literature reviewed has pointed to many critical issues that need to be addressed when establishing and achieving the purposes of systems of QA in HE. Stakeholders' engagement represents a major challenge in achieving the objectives of QA mechanisms. There are those who consider QAPs as the way to develop and improve the quality of HE. On the other hand, there are those who believe that if QAPs have not reached the levels required by stakeholders, they become far from satisfactory, can be a complicated bureaucratic procedure, a waste of time, a limit on academic freedom and QAPs become detached from activities essential to education. Other critical challenges, noted by previous studies, are the existence of conflict and poor relations between the academic and administrative levels of institutions. Such tensions can significantly hinder the operation of QA and its contribution to quality.
Because KSA is the case study location for this project, the concept of and background in quality in Islam has been highlighted along with the evolution of QA efforts in the Gulf States. This portrait of trends in the region aims to help set the context. There is a great variation in the field of QA operations between countries and KSA seems to have come a longer way in this area compared with its neighbours. Trends suggest an ongoing need to find a framework for a job well done, to promote a culture of QA and to enable
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stakeholders to be part of the body of the institution rather than externally imposing a concern for quality.
There are few empirical studies that have targeted the exploration of stakeholders’ perceptions toward QA and the challenges that accompany its operation. It is important, as I argued in the introduction, that building systems of QA be viewed as a large project of change, especially in societies where the introduction of QA systems is still recent. It is hoped that stakeholders, including governments, agencies, universities and academic leaders, can take advantage of the theories and models of change and lessons, discussed in the previous chapter of this study, in addition to thinking seriously about taking advantage of the development of recent technology to facilitate, accelerate and enhance QA operations in HE.
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