To our knowledge, this is the largest prospective population-based cohort study examin- ing the associations of folate, vitamin B12 and homocysteine concentrations during fetal life with childhood kidney outcomes. We measured folate, vitamin B12 and homocysteine concentrations during early pregnancy and at birth, assessing critical periods of kidney development. Cord blood folate and vitamin B12 concentrations were higher compared to maternal concentrations. This has also been reported previously in literature.43
According to Dutch recommendations, we assume that after gestational week 10 to12, women did not take folic acid supplements. We obtained information for maternal folic acid supplementa-
tion using questionnaires. Mothers not taking folic acid supplements in pregnancy had lower folate and higher homocysteine concentrations compared with mothers who started folic acid supplements periconceptional. Furthermore, these mothers had lower folate and vitamin B12 and higher homocysteine concentrations as compared with normal ranges of these concentrations during pregnancy.44
Of the total group of singleton live-born children 70 % had available information on kidney measurements. Selection bias in follow-up studies largely results from loss to follow-up rather than from non-response at baseline. Mothers of children without follow-up kidney measurements had lower folate and higher homocysteine concentrations, were younger, smoked more frequently and had lower alcohol intake dur- ing pregnancy and there were more with a non-European origin compared with mothers of children with available kidney measurements. Loss to follow-up would lead to selection bias if the associations of maternal fi rst trimester micronutrient concentrations with childhood kidney outcomes were diff erent between those included and those not included in the fi nal analyses. Because this is diffi cult to determine, selection bias cannot be excluded.
We performed detailed measurements on kidney outcomes. Kidney size was used as a measure of kidney development. Ultrasonography is reliable for measuring kidney volume.18 Kidney size correlates with the number of glomeruli; in epidemiologic studies, it can be used to measure kidney development.1
BSA is a well-known predictor of kidney volume. Replace- ment of BSA with BMI did not change the results. Similar eff ect estimates to combined kidney volume were observed when we explored Kidney volume/BSA as an additional outcome.45 To estimate GFR, we used the Schwartz formula based on creatinine concentrations and height, and also Zappitelli’s formula based on cystatin C concentrations.19, 20
In our analy- ses we observed small diff erences in eff ect estimates between eGFRcreat and eGFRcystC, with slightly stronger eff ect estimates for eGFRcystC. A random urine sample was used to evalu- ate the presence of microalbuminuria.46
Our results apply to a relatively healthy sample of pregnant women and children. It may be that our fi ndings could underestimate the true eff ect measures. Therefore, the generalizability of our results to other populations should be interpreted with caution. Last, although we adjusted for many potential maternal and child- hood confounders, residual confounding (eg, like child nutritional status) can still be present.
In conclusion, results from our prospective study, suggest that folate, vitamin B12, and homocysteine concentrations during fetal life aff ect off spring kidney measures. However, the eff ect sizes presented in the study are small, and results could refl ect confounding. Our fi ndings should be considered as hypothesis generating and require further replication. Ad- ditional follow-up studies are warranted to examine the long term consequences for the risk of kidney diseases in later life.
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