subtasks. Students need to learn each of these subtasks before they can perform a particular task. In other words, LOs for those subtasks need to be specified. Different levels of LOs can be structured into a LO map that depicts the relationship of various LOs and their sequence. This map is called LO or learning hierarchy. Many terms have been used to describe the LO
hierarchies. This handbook will refer to the different levels only in order to show the hierarchical relationship of LOs. The hierarchical levels are established by the learning types (i.e.,
knowledge, skill, and attitude) and their corresponding learning levels. The learning analysis hierarchy should have been developed for tasks and sub-tasks. Additional LOs should be integrated into the task learning hierarchy.
7.4.1 Purpose. The purpose of the LO hierarchy is to depict the relationship of LOs so that the most effective and efficient learning sequence can be developed.
7.4.2 Classification of LOs. LOs can be classified into two categories, as shown in Table 22. The action verb list (see Table 13) also contains a complete list of learning types and levels that will aid in determining that all Enabling LOs (ELOs) required to support a Terminal Learning Objective (TLO) have been identified.
TABLE 22. Classification of LOs.
CATEGORY DESCRIPTION OTHER NAMES
TLO A LO at the highest learning level (KSA) appropriate to the human performance requirements a student will accomplish when successfully completing instruction.
• Primary. • Main. • End. • Course. ELO A LO that students must attain in order to accomplish a
terminal objective.
• Secondary. • Supporting. • Subordinate. • Topic.
7.4.3 Example of LO hierarchy. Figure 15 is an example of a LO hierarchy. "Maintain F- 16 Fuel System" is the TLO and the others are ELOs.
Maintain F-16 Fuel System
Fuel F-16 Test Fuel
Drain Water From Fuel Tank Ground the Aircraft Open Fuel Drain Caps Defuel F-16 Procedure for Defueling F-16
Procedure for Testing Fuel
Rule for Pure Fuel Identify Tools for
Testing Fuel
Procedure for Grounding Aircraft
Rules for Proper Ground
Procedure for Opening Fuel Drain Identify Location of
Fuel Drain
Procedure for Draining Water
Rules for Determining How Much to Drain Discrimination Between
Pure and Contaminated Fuel
FIGURE 15. Example of a learning objective hierarchy.
7.4.4 Prioritizing, clustering, and sequencing LOs. The effectiveness and cost-efficiency of a course will depend in part on how well the LOs are prioritized, clustered, and sequenced.
Guidelines for prioritizing, clustering, and sequencing LOs will be provided in the following paragraphs.
7.4.4.1 Prioritize LOs. Prioritizing LOs may not be required in all training projects. However, as budgets continue to shrink, it may be necessary to prioritize the LOs in order to provide the training that is most needed by the users. For example, a 25-day course is required to teach a particular set of LOs. Due to student allocation constraints, it is only allowable to
develop a course that is 20 days in length. To reduce the course length by five days, it is necessary to determine which LOs are less critical and can be eliminated from the course.
7.4.4.2 Clustering LOs. The purpose of clustering or grouping LOs is to develop logical and meaningful portions of training such as units, lessons, or segments. When clustering LOs, use the following guidelines:
a. Cluster LOs that are common prerequisites to other LOs. For example, basic electronic knowledge and skills may be required for many tasks in a course; therefore, they may be clustered in the same unit and taught in the core training.
b. Cluster LOs that are related to the same system or require the same type of action. For example, all tasks related to the maintenance of a particular piece of navigation
equipment may be clustered into a unit.
c. Cluster LOs with common knowledge and skills. For example, some maintenance tasks require identical knowledge and skills across different systems, such as computer
maintenance or aircraft refueling.
d. Cluster LOs by learning type. For example, cluster knowledge LOs utilizing the lecture method, and cluster skill LOs taught by demonstration/performance method. Clustering LOs with the same learning type will often promote the efficient structure of a course. 7.4.4.3 Sequencing of LOs. A goal of good instructional design is to establish sequences within courses that promote effective learning. There are several sequencing techniques that can be applied. Sequence the course to minimize risks. For example, a lesson that requires the use of complicated, dangerous equipment should not immediately follow a three-day exercise that allows personnel little opportunity for sleep. Risk assessment is a consideration, no matter which technique for sequencing is used. The following are techniques for sequencing:
a. Job performance order. TLOs, ELOs, and learning steps are sequenced in the same order in which they are performed. The learning sequence and job performance sequence are the same. This technique is appropriate for actions that must be accomplished in a prescribed order such as assembly and disassembly of a weapon or loading a tank’s main gun.
b. Chronological order. The instruction flows from topic to topic, retaining the order and time in which events occur. This technique is appropriate for actions that follow a
specified order related to time (e.g., planning the timed events of a military campaign, etc.).
c. Cause and effect order. Actions are sequenced to demonstrate cause and effect
relationships. This technique is appropriate for relationships that personnel must commit to long term memory and for which training environment performance failures can be tolerated.
d. Critical order. Actions are sequenced in the order of relative importance, whether from the least important to the most important or vice versa, depending on the situation. Tasks favoring this technique are those that require an important action such as "Clear weapon before starting disassembly".
e. Simple-to-complex order. Actions are sequenced in terms of increasing complexity, each one building on the prior action. Appropriate tasks for this technique are those that require performing a simple task in order to master complex tasks.
f. Complex-to-simple order. Actions are sequenced in terms of decreasing complexity, each associated with the larger complex structure of which it is a part. Appropriate tasks for this technique are those that require understanding the existence of a complex structure in order to give meaning to the mastering of the simpler actions supporting it.
g. Known-to-unknown order. Familiar topics are considered before unfamiliar ones. This technique is appropriate in situations where the target audience has some familiarity with the type of action, but the specific action is generally unknown to them. For example, maintenance of military commercial vehicles would precede maintenance of lesser- known military specific vehicles.
7.4.4.3.1 Relationships in sequencing. In order to logically sequence actions, the training developer must determine the relationship among them. The four most important relationships in sequencing are 1) dependent, 2) supportive, 3) independent, and 4) conflicting. They are
described in detail below:
a. Dependent relationships exist between actions that are prerequisite to other actions. Personnel must master the dependent action before they can master the other(s). Examples of actions having a dependent relationship are:
(1) To learn to "Identify a saddle" as a topographic feature on a map, one must first learn to "Identify contour lines" as the brown lines on a map.
(2) To learn to "Send a message in Morse Code", one must first learn to "Identify the Morse Code symbols for each letter and number".
b. Supportive relationships exist between actions that have some relationship to actions in other LO(s). The learning acquired during mastery of an action transfers to the other(s), making mastery of the other(s) easier. Place supporting actions as close together as practical so that maximum transfer of learning takes place. Examples of actions having a supportive relationship are:
(1) "Assemble the M16" has a supportive relationship to "Assemble the M60". (2) "Drive a ¼-ton truck" has a supportive relationship to "Drive a 2 ½-ton truck". c. Independent relationships exist between actions that are unrelated to those in other LOs.
Mastering one independent action does not simplify learning the other(s). Arrange actions having independent relationships in any reasonable sequence. However, they should not be placed between actions having a dependent or supporting relationship. Examples of actions having an independent relationship are:
(1) "Type letters from drafts" is independent of "Maintain personnel records". (2) "Assemble the M16" is independent of "Drive a ¼-ton truck".
d. Conflicting relationships exist between actions that involve opposite responses to the same cue in a different context. These responses must be clearly related to the situation in which the cue is received. The two actions should be taught together and the reason for the opposite response to the same cue explained and reinforced. The conflicting element that causes two very similarly stated LOs to be conflicting usually involves a visual or auditory cue within the LOs. Examples of conflicting elements present in similarly stated actions are:
(1) In the action "Operate radio in the secure mode", different tones were used in similar radios manufactured by different companies to cue an operator that the radio is operating in the secure mode. Operators had to be trained to associate the
meaning of the tone to the specific model of radio in use.
(2) In the action "Engage targets with Stinger missile", the more sophisticated
electronics available in the Setter mounted Stinger guided the operator to adjust the sight picture to respond to false reflected Infrared (IR) signals from clouds.
Operators attempted to make the same adjustments to similar sight pictures when using the Stinger in its manportable configuration. The electronics in the
manportable Stinger do not identify the IR reflective qualities of clouds in the manner that the Setter does. Operators had to be taught that they should not make the sight picture adjustment when using the manportable Stinger.
e. Not all actions fit neatly into one of the above categories. Some may seem to be both dependent and supportive. Other combinations may seem to be just as possible. The two things to remember are to have a justification for the sequence and that in some cases the sequence can be changed. Sequencing decisions need to be documented to provide an audit trail. Table 23 summarizes the relationships between LOs.
TABLE 23. Types of relationships among LOs.
TYPES OF RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN LOs.
DEPENDENT CONFLICTING SUPPORTIVE INDEPENDENT
Knowledge and skills in one LO are closely related to those in the other LO.
Knowledge and skills in one LO conflict in some respect with those in another LO.
Knowledge and skills in one LO have some relationship to those in the other LO.
Knowledge and skills in one LO are unrelated to those in the other LO.
To master one of the LOs, it is first necessary to master the other.
Mastering one LO may cause difficulty in mastering the other LO.
Mastering one LO transfers to other, making learning involved in the mastery of the other easier.
Mastering one LO does not simplify mastering the other.
LOs must be arranged in the sequence indicated by the knowledge and skills hierarchy.
LOs must be taught closely together, directly addressing the
conflicting elements between the two LOs.
LOs should be placed close together in the sequence to permit optimum transfer of learning from one LO to the other.
In general, the LOs can be arranged in any sequence without loss of learning efficiency.
7.5 Identify student target population prerequisite requirements. After the LOs have been