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When spices are exported into the United States, they must meet ASTA specifications. The general quality tests set by ASTA include cleanliness (foreign and extraneous matter), ash level (impurities), volatile oil (adulteration), moisture content (pricing, stability), water activity (microbial growth), pesticide levels, mycotoxin/aflatoxin levels, and particle size. Other tests include piperine levels for black and white peppers; ASTA color values; capsaicin level/Scoville units for chile peppers; and curcumin content for turmeric color. Using these methods, quality limits are set for moisture, pungency, or color values. Most times, pungency, color, and other sensory values are correlated with organoleptic evaluations with trained sensory panelists. Spices not meeting the U.S. quality standards set by ASTA and recognized by FDA and the U.S. Dept. of Agriculture have to be retreated and recleaned before distribution.

Several methods for treating spices for microbial contamination, and preventing microbial and insect growth and breeding during storage conditions have been used, including fumigation with methyl bromide, sterilizing with ethylene oxide, irradia- tion, and heat treatment. Ethylene oxide (EtO) has been banned in many European countries and Japan because of concerns that residues left after fumigation may be harmful to human health and cause cancer in workers who have prolonged exposure to it. Fumigants impart undesirable odors and colors and are not always effective with whole spices. The use of EtO does affect the sensory profiles of spices and 2842_C004.fm Page 59 Tuesday, September 19, 2006 8:25 AM

60 Handbook of Spices, Seasonings, and Flavorings, Second Edition destroys vitamin B1 and vitamin C. It reacts with chlorides in foods to form chlo- rohydrins that are toxic to humans. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is reregistering ethylene oxide, and ASTA, which favors use of EtO, is conducting a new treatment method study to generate data in support of reregistration by EPA. The issue of phasing out methyl bromide by 2005 under the Montreal Protocol for Ozone Protection is under discussion again.

Irradiation, first approved by FDA for use on spices in 1983, exposes spices up to a million rads of ionizing radiation, the highest amounts allowed for any food. Approved by ASTA, this process more effectively kills microbes than EtO. Concerns have been expressed by EPA that irradiation changes the chemical composition of a spice, potentially creating toxic and carcinogenic by-products in the food. This method is banned in Japan. It also reduces the sensory and nutritional quality of the spices and gives a lower consumer acceptance.

Consumers’ concerns with irradiation and chemical treatments have led to use of steam heat (e.g., in Japan) for sterilizing spices. High-pressure steam creates clumping of spices, dissipates aroma volatiles, and discolors spices to some extent. Controlled atmospheric storage with low temperature storage and controlled humid- ity conditions to prevent mold growth and aflatoxin production are possible ways of reducing contamination. Insects do not survive in an atmosphere with less than 2% oxygen, and so, nitrogen or carbon dioxide is used to replace oxygen in storage areas.

Microbiological requirements for “clean” spices include counts for total bacteria, yeast, mold, coliforms, and food pathogens such as E. coli and Salmonella. High microbial counts are caused by contamination during growing and postharvesting handling. Spore-forming bacteria, such as the Bacillus species or Aerobacter aero- genes found in the soil can be transferred to the spice during the drying process, especially with “under the ground” spices such as turmeric, ginger, galangal, and garlic. The type and amount of molds and bacteria on a spice depends on the type of spice and the conditions under which it is harvested and dried. Staphylocccus and

Streptococcus bacteria species predominate, but pathogenic bacteria tend not to exist on spices. Spices that show strong antimicrobial properties tend to have low counts of microbes.

Molds, such as Aspergillus, that produce toxins are found on certain spices including red pepper, fenugreek, and ginger, so there are specification limits for these toxins. Molds tend to multiply during the drying process and during storage. Good storage conditions, monitoring, and specifications are important in retain- ing quality attributes of spices. Proper packaging is essential for preventing oxidation and, thus, retaining color and flavor. To retain good aroma in spices, long-term storage is not recommended. Processing conditions such as grinding and sterilization can decrease the volatile oils in spices. During storage, microbial growth and insect infestation can occur to varying degrees, depending upon the extent of contamination during harvesting, transportation, and processing conditions. Filth levels include foreign materials such as insect fragments (moths, mites, beetles), small stones, metal fragments, and glass pieces. Insects and mold growth can change the color and, to some extent, the flavor of the spice.

Spice Labeling, Standards, Regulations, and Quality Specifications 61

Dried spices generally do not spoil but lose their strength in aroma, flavor, and color over a period of time. Whole spices last longer than ground or crushed forms. Commercially available whole spices have from 2 to 4 years, ground spice from 6 months to 2 years, and leafy spices from 3 months to 2 years, depending upon type of spice, process, and storage conditions. Extracts last up to 4 years except vanilla which has longer shelf life. Spice blends and seasonings last about 1 or 2 years depending on contents.

Light will fade the color and character of spices, and heat volatilizes and dissipates the essential oils in ground spices, and moisture or high humidity tends to cake ground spices. High levels of moisture in ground or whole spices are potential for mold and microbial growth. Exposure to light, humidity variations, air, and certain metals can discolor many spices such as paprika, turmeric, or the green leafy spices. Dry, ground chile peppers turn from a natural green or red color to an olive or dirty reddish brown color when exposed to light. Flavor and aroma losses as well as insect and rodent infestation occur when spices are not stored in airtight containers.

Spices or spice extractives should be stored in tightly closed containers in cool, dark, dry conditions below 68˚F and 60% humidity. Some spices need cooler refrig- eration temperatures, such as 32˚F to 45˚F, to prevent mold infestation (capsicum peppers), color deterioration (paprika), and to avoid rancidity (in high fixed oil seeds, such as sesame seeds). Colder temperatures also help preserve volatile oil flavor and aroma, freshness, and sanitary quality. Refrigeration slows microbial growth in ground or whole spices.

The control of insects and microbes is important in receiving a quality spice. Spices need to be free of microbes to reduce the initial bacteria or mold content in processed foods. Spice extractives and sterilized spices tend to meet these objectives. Ground spices for minimally processed foods such as salad dressings, condiments, or “sprinkle on” seasonings should be well cleaned and sterilized.

In summary, proper storage and use of spices will maintain spice quality: • Store in a cool dry place, away from heat (oven, stove), light (near window

or in transparent packaging), or moisture (steam from cooking near spice container or use of a wet spoon into container). All this will hasten the loss of spice aroma and flavor and cause caking.

• Store spice in airtight containers to maintain freshness. After each use, close container tightly. Exposure to air accelerates flavor loss.

• Store spices at cool temperatures as they help retain flavor of spices. • Do not store spices in freezer as repeated removal for use results in

condensation in the containers, resulting in loss of flavor and aroma. To help assure quality of incoming spices, spice suppliers often put in place Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP) systems in addition to meeting ASTA standards.

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5

A to Z Spices

AJOWAN

Sometimesmislabeled as lovage seeds, ajowan, also referred to as “royal” cumin, Ethiopian cumin, Egyptian black caraway, or caraway. In India, similar names are given to ajowan, nigella and celery. Ajowan is an essential ingredient in a Bengali seasoning called panchphoron. Omam water, an infusion of ajowan seeds, has been used since ancient times in India for stomach pains, colic, diarrhea, and other disorders.

Scientific Name(s): Trachyspermum (T) ammi, T. copticum or Carum copticum. Family: Apiaceae (parsley family). Ajowan originated from the Eastern Mediterra- nean region and came to India with the Greeks, who were called Yavanas by South Indians. Ajowan originated from the Sanskrit word yavanaka or ajomoda.

Common Names: ajwain, carom, Ethiopian cumin, wild parsley, bishop’s weed. It is also called netch (white) azmad (Amharic), ajwan, kamun al-mulaki, taleb el koub (Arabic), joni-gutti (Assamese), jowan, yamani (Bengali), yan-jhon-wuih- heung (Cantonese), nanava (Farsi), ajowan (Dutch, French, German, Italian), ayamo, yavan (Gujerati), ajwain, carom omum (Hindi), ajamoda, oma (Kannada), ayowan (Korean), ajowan (Japanese), ayamodakam (Malayalam), yin-dou-zeng-hui-xiang (Mandarin), javano (Nepali), oregano-semente, ajowan (Portugese), ajavain (Pun- jabi), assamodum (Singhalese), ajowan (Spanish), omam (Tamil), omamu (Telegu), chilan (Thai), and misir anason (Turkish).

Origin and Varieties: Brought by the Greeks to India from the eastern Mediter- ranean, ajowan is today cultivated in South India, Europe, Egypt, Pakistan, Iran, and Afghanistan.

Form: it is a small, caraway-like seed that is used whole or ground.

Properties: ajowan is a close relative of caraway, dill, and cumin. It has large curved and ridged oval, celery-like seeds that are light brown to purplish red in color. Ajowan seed when bruised, has a flavor similar to thyme but stronger. Its volatile oil, thymol, has a piney, phenol-like and slight lemony notes. When crushed or ground, it has a more intense flavor. It can be bitter and slightly spicy. Its leaves, stems, and roots are aromatic.

Chemical Components: ajowan contains 2.5% to 5% essential oil, mainly phe- nols-thymol (35% to 60%) and carvacrol (11%) along with non phenols, beta-pinene, para-cymene, alpha-pinene limonene with gamma- and beta-terpinenes. South Indian ajowan has mostly thymol, about 98%.

Ajowan contains iron, niacin, and calcium.

How Prepared and Consumed: ajowan is commonly used by North Indians, Pakistanis, North Africans, and Iranians. It is used whole or ground and has a natural affinity with starchy foods, such as root vegetables, legumes, breads, snacks, and  

64 Handbook of Spices, Seasonings, and Flavorings, Second Edition green beans. Ajowan makes starch and meats easier to digest and is added to legumes to prevent flatulence. It goes well with cumin, ghee, garlic, ginger, and turmeric.

In North India (Gujerat and Punjab), ajowan seeds are popular with vegetarian cooking. It is fried in ghee with other spices, and this aromatic mixture is added to cooked legumes and vegetables. Ajowan seeds are added to flatbreads called par- athas, to snacks (pakora), and pastries, and served with nuts. In Bengal, it is used as part of a seasoning called panchphoran, which flavors fish and vegetable curries. To enhance its flavor, ajowan is roasted or fried in oil until it becomes light brown. It then provides a more intense aroma to fish curries, lentil stews, and potatoes.

In Ethiopia, ajowan is an integral part of a spice blend called berbere, which is used for meat stews and vegetables.

Spice Blends: berbere, chat masala, panchphoran, and pakora filling blend.

Therapeutic Uses and Folklore: ajowan is highly valued in India as a gastrointes- tinal medicine and an antiseptic. It is combined with salt and hot water and taken after meals to relieve pain in bowel or colic pain, and to improve indigestion. Ajowan was also a traditional remedy for cholera and fainting spells. Westerners generally use it against coughs and throat issues. Ajowan is an ingredient in mouthwashes and toothpastes because of its antiseptic properties.

ALLSPICE

An essential ingredient for Jamaican jerk paste or seasoning, allspice is native to the Caribbean and the Americas. The English gave the name allspice because it has a flavor that combines the flavors of several spices, cloves, cinnamon, nutmeg, and black pepper. The Spanish explorers named it dulce pimienta or sweet pepper, because of the berry’s resemblance to the black peppercorn. Also called aromatic pepper and Jamaican pepper, allspice is not related to the peppercorn. It was first imported into Europe in 1601 as a substitute for cardamom.

Scientific Name(s): Pimenta dioica, formerly P. officinalis. Family: Myrtaceae (myrtle family).

Common Names: Jamaican pepper, pimento, clove pepper, English spice. It is also called baharat, bahar halu (Arabic), do heung guo, duo xiang go (Cantonese, Mandarin), piment (Dutch), pimento (English), toute-epice, poivre de Jamaique, poivre aromatique (French), piment neugewurz, nelkenpfeffer (German), pilpel angli (Hebrew), bahari (Greek) orusupaisu (Japanese), pepe di Giamaica, pimento (Ital- ian), kappalmulagu (Malayalam), pimento de Jamaica (Portuguese), kryddpeppar (Swedish), pimienta gorda, pimento dulce, pimienta de Jamaica (Spanish), kat- tukaruva (Tamil), and yeni bahar (Turkish).

Origin and Varieties: there are many types of allspice, each with varying tastes. It is indigenous to the Caribbean Islands, specifically Jamaica, South America (Brazil, Leeward Isle), Central America (Guatemala, Honduras, Belize), and Mexico. Allspice is also grown in India and Réunion. The United States buys mainly from Central America and Mexico. This spice is often adulterated with ground clove stems or a closely related species, P. racemosa.

Form: the berry/seed of the pimiento tree is picked green/unripe and then dried until it turns dark reddish brown in color. It is globular and has a rough textured

A to Z Spices 65

surface. It is slightly larger than the black peppercorn. The Mexican type is the largest and darkest in color. Jamaican allspice berries are smaller. Allspice is used whole or ground. The aromatic leaves and bark can also be used to provide an allspice-type flavor to foods, especially to smoked meats and beverages.

Properties: allspice has a warm, pungent taste and the aroma of cloves with sweeter, floral background notes. Its flavor has a hint of cinnamon, mace, and nutmeg with peppery overtones. Jamaican allspice which is superior to all other varieties, is the most aromatic. The Mexican variety is less sweet and mellower than the Jamaican or Central American types. Allspice berries lose their aroma upon ripening, so they are collected when unripe and dried in the sun until they turn dark reddish brown in color. The leaf has a different flavor, a woodier aroma with less intense but coarser notes. The bark has more coarse and woodier notes than the leaf.

Chemical Components: the allspice berry contains 1.5% to 5% essential oil, which is colorless to reddish yellow. The Jamaican type has up to 5% essential oil, Guatemalan—3%, Mexican—1.4% to 3%, and Honduran—1.3% to 4%. Jamaican allspice has a minimum of 65% phenols, mainly eugenol (68% to 78%), methyl eugenol (2.9% to 13%), 1,8-cineol, α-phellandrene, humulene, terpinolene, and caryophyllene. The fixed oil content is about 6%. The Mexican variety has a high myrcene content (5%). Allspice has over 8% quercitannic acid that gives it its astringency.

The Jamaican variety produces the most leaf oil—its fresh leaf contains 0.35% to 1.25% essential oil (dried leaf has higher oil, from 0.7% to 2.9%). The essential oil contains 80% to 90% phenols, mainly eugenol, 65% to 90% higher than in the berry oil. Others contributing non phenols are α-pinene, caryophyllene, limonene, 1,8-cineole, and good amounts of tannin. The bark contains small amounts of eugenol and higher levels of tannin.

Its oleoresin is brownish green to dark green in color. About 21_/

2 lb. of essential

oil will replace 100 lb. of freshly ground spice, while 5 lb. of oleoresin will replace 100 lb. of freshly ground spice.

Dried allspice has calcium, potassium, sodium, manganese, and beta-carotene.

How Prepared and Consumed: the Aztecs and Mayans flavored their chocolate drink with allspice seeds. Caribs and other indigenous Americans used it for pre- serving fish and meat. This practice was learned by the Spanish who also used allspice to preserve meats. During the seventeenth century, pirates in the Caribbean smoked and barbecued meat with allspice, which they called boucan.

Allspice is popular with Western (British, Scandinavian, German, and Ameri- can), North African, and Caribbean cuisines and not with Asian cooking. Nowadays, allspice seeds are typically used whole as part of a spice blend for pickling and marinating fish and meats. The British add it to their stews, sauces, and pickled vegetables while the Scandinavians enjoy it in meat patties and sausages. In the United States, allspice is ground for use in seasonings and sauces, and its extracted oils are used in sausages. Allspice is also used in ketchup, jams, pumpkin pies, gravies, roasts, and ham. It goes well with smoked pork, beef, and fish and with habaneros, cumin, onions, tamarind, cinnamon, and cloves. Allspice leaf is used in baked goods, chewing gum, candy, ice cream, fruit soups, teas, and liqueurs.

66 Handbook of Spices, Seasonings, and Flavorings, Second Edition Allspice is an important spice in Caribbean cooking and is added to curries, stews, barbecues, and sweet potatoes. Jamaica’s popular drink, pimento dram, has whole berries while its signature seasoning, jerk, has ground allspice as its main ingredient. It is rubbed over pork, chicken, or fish that are then cooked over a fire. It gives a smoky and spicy flavor to the barbecued product. Allspice leaves are sometimes stuffed into the meat which is then barbecued over allspice wood or bark to give it the typical flavor of “jerk.”

In Oaxaca, Mexico, allspice is used in certain mole sauces. In Kerala India, it becomes part of some curry blends. Scandinavians use it to preserve herring. The English use ground allspice in cakes, puddings, mincemeats, pickled vegetables, sausages, and cured meats. In North Africa, allspice is used in Ethiopian berbere and Moroccan ras-el-hanout spice blends. Middle Easterners flavor stews, kibbeh

(ground lamb with cracked wheat) and pilafs with ground allspice.

Spice Blends: jerk seasoning, berbere, ras-el-hanout, quatre-epices, fish pickling blend, ketchup blend, Jamaican curry blend and Kerala fish curry.

Therapeutic Uses and Folklore: the Aztecs and Mayans used allspice to embalm bodies because of its preservative qualities. It was also considered an aphrodisiac. Allspice has been used to promote digestion and remove gases from the upper intestinal tract. It is used as a mild anaesthetic for aching gums and teeth and as a mild pain reliever for muscles and joints.

Allspice has bactericidal, fungicidal, and antioxidant properties.