Características relevantes del concepto de inclusión

Modern employment theory argues that there is no single policy that carries more potential benefits than the full employment of individuals willing to work (Forstater 2006). Employment has important social benefits for individuals, families, neighbourhoods, and communities. Research has linked employment with through decreased crime rates, reduced drug and alcohol abuse, and stable healthy families (Cullen 1999; Forstater 2006). Employment is particularly significant for refugee communities as it assists in enabling people to integrate more easily into the host community. Financial independence, opportunities to enhance skills, build social networks and contribute to society all aid in the process of establishing a sense of home in a new country and creating a positive self-identity (Cholewinski 2010; Trewin 2001).

However, while multiculturalism is celebrated, and used to strengthen citizenship, and nation-building programs, there is a gap between the rhetoric and the actual lived

experience of particular cultural communities and individuals. This can be seen in the experience of refugee communities in terms of difficulty in gaining employment and earning an income with which to establish themselves and their families. (Abur & Spaaij 2016). While obtaining, and being engaged in employment is an extremely important aspect of the integration process for refugees (Abur & Spaaij 2016; Colic-Peisker & Tilbury 2007), and a first priority for those who wish to support their families either overseas or where they have settled (Ager & Strang 2008), refugees tend to experience a high rate of unemployment and lower earnings compared to other migrants (Abdelkerim & Grace 2012, Abur & Spaaij 2016).

The meaning and impact of employment and unemployment are critical aspects of the study of refugee settlement and this PhD research focuses on the benefits of employment both in regard to financial enablement and the important skills and social networks that people can gain through employment. Before reviewing previous research in this area, brief definitions of key terms are provided. Paid employment has been defined as a state of having a job or via providing a service for wages or salaries, in cash or via in kind support of some variety (Krahn, Howard & Galambos 2015). Employment provides potent functions such as a sense of societal structure and a meaningful life, as people are able to work and make a contribution to their families and community (Blustein, Medvide & Wan 2012). Employment may be full-time or part-time and range in stability from casual or contract to ongoing. Under-employment is when the hours of paid work may be casual or insufficient to meet living costs (Cullen 1999). Unemployment is a situation where a person has no paid work but is actively looking for paid work (Hussmanns 2007). In order for a person to register as unemployed and claim an unemployment benefit, they must be immediately available for paid employment (Cullen 1999)

In the context of settlement, there are many factors as to why refugees struggle with difficulties in obtaining employment (Abur & Spaaij 2016; Colic-Peisker & Tilbury 2007). These problems often include a shortage of jobs in the market, meaning that there is strong competition for positions. However, gaining employment is also hampered by a lack of fluency in English, lack of local experience and as well as lack of understanding sophisticated system in Australia (Abur & Spaaij 2016, Correa-Velez, Barnett & Gifford

2015). Additionally, people from refugee backgrounds are vulnerable to long-term unemployment and lower earning jobs because of the lack of required skills, non- transferability of skills and qualifications (Taylor 2004). Due to war and conflict and long periods spent in camps refugees frequently have low literacy and numeracy skills, which impact both on their ability to do some jobs and on their confidence. However, even those who are highly literate also face barriers as often their qualifications are not recognised and this causes difficulty in obtaining jobs (Abur & Spaaij 2016; Colic-Peisker & Tilbury 2007 Fozdar & Hartley 2013). These issues around qualifications mean that when refugees are able to find work it is often in low-paid jobs such as cleaning and seasonal fruit picking (Colic-Peisker & Tilbury 2007, Taylor 2004). It is also significant that, as new arrivals, refugees do not have the social networks of long-term residents, which can often be instrumental in assisting people find work.

These are the most obvious reasons for unemployment in refugee communities. However, there are a host of other reasons which are connected to, or a result of the post- trauma, loss and disruption refugees have experienced prior to their arriving in a country such as Australia. These post-traumatic experiences include physical and mental suffering. The experiences also some conflicts in families, caring responsibilities, and a feeling of hopelessness (Abdelkerim & Grace 2012; Colic-Peisker & Tilbury 2007, Lawlor & Perkins 2009, Ziguras & Kleidon 2005). Refugees who have spent a long time in refugee camps may also have substance abuse issues which can interfere with obtaining employment (Ziguras & Kleidon 2005). Families also find harder to access affordable rental houses which add on top of other pressuring issues. Lack of available and affordable rental properties and discrimination towards families and individuals from refugee backgrounds is some which has been experienced by the South Sudanese community in Australia (Abur 2012).

Racism and discrimination is another considerable barrier for refugees engaging with employment (Abur & Spaaij 2016, Colic-Peisker & Tilbury 2007, Taylor 2004). Refugees from African backgrounds are more likely to experience racism and stereotyping in the workplace because of their accent and physical appearance (Fozdar & Torezani 2008) as well as various forms of bullying and harassment (Abur & Spaaij 2016, Taylor 2004). Racism and discrimination can hurt, humiliate, enrage, confuse and

ultimately prevent optimal growth and functioning of individuals and communities (Baker-Lewton, et al 2017; Fozdar & Torezani 2008). Refugees are also vulnerable to workplace exploitation due to lack of awareness about their legal rights. This mean they are paid less or have worse conditions than other workers because they don’t know their legal rights (Colic-Peisker & Tilbury 2007).