Características y funciones del apego

ICT can be viewed as a technical subject and in the case of user skills as practical, hands-on and a basic skill. Its relative newness as a subject means that learners are often perceived as unfamiliar with, or even fearful of, equipment and software. Knowles (1984) suggested that when learners were entering a new area of content, were confronting a machine they had not seen before or in basic skills classes a pedagogic approach may be more appropriate. He also concluded (Knowles et al, 2005) that learners in technical subjects may be less likely to learn in a self-directing manner, while Donnelly (1999) argued that the andragogical model is better suited to the ‘soft’ skills required for discursive content areas such as history. This would suggest that user skills with its possible association with mastery of machine and low-level skills might be regarded as requiring pedagogical, transmissive teaching approaches. Margolis (1984) and Boud and Prosser (1984), however, argued that a degree of andragogy-ness was also applicable in technical training. Further the integrated nature of user skills (Foley et al 2002, Clarke and Englebright, 2003) indicates that generic, ‘soft’ skills and high-level cognitive skills are important which in Donnelly’s (1999) terms calls for an andragogical approach. This suggests a dualism within ICT user skills. Sfard (1998) similarly concluded that the acquisition and participation metaphors could work together; arguing that each has something to offer that the other could not. But this dualism could create tensions for skill acquisition and learner self-concepts.

Skill acquisition: Learners in ICT user classes are often new to specific software or computer skills, especially at the start of courses. Selinger (2001)

highlighted problems with trying to cope with using a new computer program to complete a task at the same time as learning the procedural skills to use that program. This implies that as Ramberg & Kerlgren (1998:120) suggested ‘superficial’ aspects need to be ‘emphasized and fully appreciated’. In other words as Gibson (2001) concluded low-level drill-and-practice might be an appropriate strategy when introducing new skills or concepts, to build awareness or reinforce habits. Such low-level orientation to subject culture is also implicit in Dreyfus and Dreyfus’ (2005) early expert levels. Lack of awareness (Foley et al, 2002) of ICT’s potential may also make it difficult for learners to be self-directing initially making them dependant on teacher expertise and didactic instruction. The concept of dualism, however, demands that at some point activity must move from acquisition to participation principles. Dualism would indicate that differing approaches to ICT teaching would be observable according to the skills content, stage of programme and the level of study. This concept argues for ICT user skills as progressive, and as the ILP (iSkills, 2007) described moving from low-level to high-level cognitive skills. For Knowles (2005) this transfer of approach needed to happen as soon as possible so that the learner became increasing self-directing and autonomous, while for Dreyfus and Dreyfus (2005) it was essential to progress to higher expert levels. Development from this perspective suggests the dualism could be non-linear and recurring, that is it moves in cycles of directed or self-directed progressions as new elements of skill are introduced, reinforced and assimilated. Such an approach would require a pluralistic, reflexive teaching approach to deal with ever changing learner autonomy.

Learner self-concepts: Assumptions of self-determination and autonomy are, however, contested. Hanson (1996) argued that in reality adults seemed to relinquish their self-determination in the classroom. She suggested adults are willing to accept an unequal partnership provided the tutor has something to offer to justify their authority which typically was their subject or teaching expertise. Knowles et al (2005) similarly concluded that autonomous adults may choose to learn in a directed way if they perceived this was the best approach

to the subject but for him the freedom to choose was critical. One drawback with this supposition is that learners come with preconceptions of learning and subject. For example Hanson (1996) argued adults expected and seem more comfortable with the transmissive approaches because this reflected their previous school experiences. Knowles (1984) acknowledged this phenomenon but countered that it was teachers’ responsibility to orientate the learner to the andragogic model at the start of the course. But this requires teacher commitment and as Rachal (2002) argued part of the confusion over andragogy is that its effectiveness has not been proven. Teachers may be reluctant to implement change they perceive as experimental or their own perceptions of ICT as technical, practical and hands-on might mean that they accept a transmissive approach as most appropriate, especially if they perceive their learners to be attuned to that approach. Learners, and teachers, prior knowledge or experience thus could have a limiting impact rather than enabling autonomous learning as Knowles predicted.

For Meadows (1995) adults’ self-concepts and prior knowledge meant that they were able to ‘scaffold’ themselves through internal dialogue and reflection about their own performance. This argument appears at first to be supported by Staudinger’s (1996) findings that adults who where given a few minutes of solitary reflection after discussion gave more sophisticated solutions to problems. But this presupposes that adults have opportunities for discussion from which to develop their own solutions. If teaching is heavily transmissive there may be little discussion opportunities. It can also be argued that as ICT novices adult learners, especially in the early stages, may need support to help them to direct their thinking in the same way that children as life novices do. Further, that although adults might have generic skills they might require support to place them into the new ICT context or that they may not have the right kind of generic skills. Hanson (1996) questioned whether learners even saw self-direction and reflection as part of their agenda. She argued that, as part-time learners, adults may have limited time to devote to learning and simply want a ‘quick fix’ to achieve the end goal, that is complete the course or pass

the qualification. Further that time spent emphasizing reflection might actually lead to failure of that goal. This returns discussion yet again to consideration of the ultimate goals and fundamental aims of user skill; the question remains is the outcome goal for narrow and immediate skills or for wider and long-term understanding.