Caracteristícas de los FPGA Spartan 3 de Xilinx

200. Refshauge, W.F. (1983 forthcoming), 'Population Policy', United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific

(1983 forthcoming), Population of Australia, ESCAP Country Monograph Series, United Nations, Bangkok.

201. Australian Institute of Multicultural Affairs (1982), Evaluation of Post-Arrival Programs and Services, Australian Institute of

Multicultural Affairs, Melbourne, p. 225.

202. MacKellar, M.J.R. (1978b), Immigration Policies and Australia's Population, Statement by the Minister for Immigration and Ethnic Affairs, Commonwealth of Australia, Canberra, p. 2.

203. Ibid., p. 1.

204. MacKellar (1978a), op. cit., pp. 1-3 and Zubrzycki, Jerzy (1976), 'Cultural Pluralism and Discrimination in Australia: With Special Reference to White Minority Groups', Veenhoven, Willem A. (ed)(1976), Case Studies on Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms. A World Survey, Foundation for the Study of Plural Societies, Martinus Nijhoff, The Hague, Volume Three, p. 414.

205. Macphee, Ian (1981a), Australia's Migrant Assessment System, Statement by the Minister for Immigration and Ethnic Affairs, Commonwealth of Australia, Canberra, p. 4.

Over the late 1970s and beginning of the 1980s the most sizeable component of the increasing immigration program was the (then) General Eligibility category, i.e. independent applicants and employment nominees,

2oß

up to two-fifths and 45,000 in the financial year 1980-81. Settlers

coming in this category acted to preserve the existing ethnic composition of Australia's population, as many were drawn from places with similar trade

207

skill levels, such as the British Isles. Similarly, those coming as

part of the Family Reunion category by definition boosted arrivals from

existing sources. The effect on population composition of the Special

Eligibility category (trans-Tasman migrants, patrials from Britain, 208

entrepreneurs and self-supporting retirees) was not as straightforward,

however. Although there were already close to 90,000 New Zealand-born persons in Australia at the 1976 Census, the exodus from New Zealand at the end of the 1970s caused by its economic downturn meant a virtual doubling

209

of this number by 1981, despite the requirement from that year of passports

210

for security purposes for all trans-Tasman travellers. That is, the

influence of this category was both preserved and extended. The Refugee

category acted more positively to diversify Australia's population, as such a large part of it came from the almost entirely new source of Indo-China.

Like the eligibility categories, the assessment system more readily selected immigrants of certain origins, i.e. those who were native English-

speakers or came from countries where English was widely used. The

selection system introduced in 1979, NUMAS (Numerical Multifactor Assessment System) attracted criticism because of its stress on competence in English

211

as a pre-requisite for both economic and personal settlement suitability. Nevertheless, because English was recognised as being of considerable

212

importance for settlement success," ^ a revised means of assessing it was

206. Australian Council on Population and Ethnic Affairs (1983), op. cit.,

p. 3.

207. D.I.E.A. (1982c), op. cit., p. 50.

208. From 1982 entrepreneurs were included in the new Business Migration

category.

209. A.B.S., 1981 Census: Cross-classified table 31.

210. Durack, P.D. (1981), Passports needed to enter Australia, News Release

from the Acting Minister for Immigration and Ethnic Affairs, 45/81, Canberra.

211. Price (1980), loc. cit., p. A13 and D.I.E.A. (1981c), Review of NUMAS, Submission form and information for Community Consultations, mimeo, Canberra, p. 8 and p. 10.

D.I.E.A. (1981d), Committee of Review on Migrant Assessment. Statement

of Findings, A.G.P.S., Canberra, pp. 114-115.

included in the so-called 1982.213

'new migrant selection system' applying from

There were also important initiatives affecting citizenship in the early 1980s. One of these was an amendment to the Australian Citizenship Act proposed by the Coalition Government to remove discrimination in favour of those with certain origins. A review of this legislation suggested that

in future the granting of Australian citizenship by birth be limited, in general, to children born in Australia to Australian citizens or legal

214

permanent residents. Similarly, the passing on of citizenship by descent 215 was to be generally confined to one generation of overseas-born children.

Significantly, the government also wished to end the imperial concept of 'British subject' status, i.e. British nationality, following its

removal from the British Nationality Act of 1981. It proposed to adopt 216

instead the exclusive use of 'Australian citizen'. In relation to this, it included in amendments to the Commonwealth Electoral Act 1918 the

provision that the rights to enrol as a Commonwealth elector and to nominate for election to the Commonwealth parliament be restricted to Australian citizens. As well, persons who were British subjects other than Australian citizens were no longer to be entitled to enrol and vote after six months'

217

residence. In general, the allegiance to Australia alone meant that, in future, those with continuing British nationality were to be legally as

218

alien in Australia as those having citizenship outside the Commonwealth of Nations.

2.3.13 Future Immigration And Citizenship Directions

At the time of writing in early 1983, the Labor Government had recently returned to office and intended to resume the general thrust of immigration

213. Macphee, I.M. (1982), Australian Citizenship, Statement by the Minister for Immigration and Ethnic Affairs, Commonwealth of Australia, Canberra, p. 4.

214. Ibid., p. 3. 215. Ibid., p. 3. 216. Ibid., p . 4.

217. See Statute Law (Miscellaneous Amendments) Act 1981, No.. 176,

218.

Section 32.

Any person who was not a British subject, nor from 1948 an Irish citizen nor protected person according to the Nationality and Citizenship Act 1948, Section 5.

and citizenship initiatives established by its predecessor of 1972 to 1975. This it proposed to do by considering Australia's needs and economic

219

capacity to absorb immigrants, as well as continuing family reunion migration and meeting Australia's humanitarian obligations.220 It therefore planned to re-examine the economically-determined migrant entry categories and the

221

unrestricted flow across the Tasman, accept refugees from a wider range of regions and adopt a greater role in attempting to bring about international

222

solutions to refugee problems. It also intended to examine anomalies and remove discrimination from citizenship legislation, but unlike the Coalition Government, it did not consider that an English language

223

requirement was appropriate. The Labor Government also planned to remove any remaining discrimination from the Migration Act in regard to deportation.224

2.4 ABORIGINAL POLICIES

2.4.1 Early Policies Towards Aboriginals

Although non-European immigrants were regarded particularly harshly after their presence in Australia became noticeable from the mid-nineteenth century, European attitudes towards Aboriginals were even more uncompromising. Both then evolved, but those towards Aboriginals have not been modified

sufficiently to permit removal of all forms of overt discrimination at 225

the beginning of the 1980s.

When Europeans first settled in Australia, there were an estimated 300,000 Aboriginals on the mainland and in the island of T a s m a n i a . " ^ The

227

British never made any treaties with them, but the imperial authorities

219. Young, Mick (1983), Immigration and Community Relations, Australian Labor Party Policy Statement by the Shadow Minister for Immigration and Ethnic Affairs, mimeo, Canberra, p. 1.

220. Ibid., pp. 2-3. 221. _{Ibid., P- 2 and p} 222. _{Ibid., P* 5.} 223. _{Ibid., P- 6.} 224. _{Ibid., P- 6.}

225. Franklin, Margaret Ann (1979), 'Racism Australian Style', The Australian Quarterly 51(3), pp. 98-107.

226. Smith (1980), o p . c i t . , p. 70.

Australian Information Service, Department of Administrative Services (1980), The Australian Aboriginals, Reference Paper, A.G.P.S.,

Canberra, p. 7. 227.

intended that there be peaceful interaction between the newcomers and the

228 2 29

indigenous population. “ This did not happen“" and as the colonies

expanded over the continent, the Aboriginals were dispossessed of their land and either died out through starvation, murder, disease or induced tribal wars, retreated to more remote areas or formed population pockets.

From about 1860 the various colonies began to enact legislation to 231

protect and segregate the Aboriginal population. Yet at the same time,

and especially from the 1890s, Christian missions were established in isolated regions to help the threatened Aboriginal people assimilate into

232

European society. The efforts of these missions were in part responsible

233

for arresting the destruction of most Aboriginal communities which

2 34 probably took place most rapidly to 1890.

Despite the missionaries' efforts, there nevertheless remained a

firmly established view during the nineteenth century that Aboriginals were 235

a dying race and even of no significance. The European colonists

therefore regarded with some concern the growing number of part-Aboriginal children being born and then raised as Aboriginals. Accordingly they

resorted to such practices as removing light-coloured part-Aboriginal infants from their full-blood mothers in reserves and placing them in

2 38

government or church homes.“ For Europeans of the day the part-Aboriginal

228. The Library Committee of the Commonwealth Parliament (ed)(1914),

Historical Records of Australia, Series 1, Governors' Despatches to

and from England, Government Printer, Sydney, Volume 1, 1788-1796, pp. 13-14.

229. Australian Information Service, Department of Administrative Services (1980), o p , cit., p. 7.

230. Altman, Jon C. and Nieuwenhuysen, John (1979), The Economic Status of

Australian Aborigines, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, p. 23

and Smith (1980), op. cit., p. 6.

231. Australian Information Service, Department of Administrative Services (1980), op. cit., p. 8.

232. Long, J.P.M. (1970), Aboriginal Settlements. A Survey of Institutional

Communities in Eastern Australia, A.N.U. Press, Canberra, p. 5 and Altman and Nieuwenhuysen (1979), op. cit., p. 23.

233. Rowley, C.D. (1970), The Destruction of Aboriginal Society. Aboriginal

Policy and Practice - Volume I, Aborigines in Australian Society 4, A.N.U. Press, Canberra, p. 246.

234. National Population Inquiry (1975), First Report, Population and

Australia. A Demographic Analysis and Projection, A.G.P.S., Canberra,

Volume Two, p. 481.

235. Smith (1980), op. cit., p. 18.

was a phenomenon of transition, rather than an end in himself. Only the 238

Chinese were seen as presenting any threat to ethnic homogeneity.

2.4.2 Policies Towards Aboriginals To World War II.

The coming of Federation in 1901 did not unify attitudes towards Aboriginals as it did those towards immigrants. Rather, diverse policies and approaches continued from the colonial days, as the new Constitution of the Commonwealth of Australia gave legislative responsibility for Aboriginal matters to the State governments and only residual powers to the

239

Commonwealth. This meant that citizenship, being a Commonwealth matter, was generally denied them and that they continued to be subject to various

240