Though Antarctic stations are probably the most studied ICEs, it is surprising that few studies have included both the elements of isolation and confinement in their measurements. Even though both elements are key aspects defining an ICE, they have received little attention despite their importance (Bishop et al., 2001; Godwin, 1986). This makes the present research even more valuable as it gives a complex insight into the role of both isolation and confinement in one’s adjustment.
5.4.1
Consequences for the individual
Study 1 and Study 2 both suggest that the more people feel lonely in an ICE, the less satisfied with their work experience they are. The studies also support the idea that loneliness is negatively related to mood ratio. This is in line with physiological research on isolation that found social isolation to be related with higher level of cortisol (Matias, Nicolson, & Freire, 2011), which is known to increase irritability and depression, as well as cognitive impairment and sleep disturbance. Altogether, the present studies suggest that the extent to which one feels lonely in an ICE could be a good indicator of how well one adjusts. This is important because those who enrol for such positions might be highly motivated and enthusiastic about being part of an expedition and experiencing life in the confined habitat in which they will have to live. But if the environment presents challenges they unsuccessfully struggle to overcome, their stay might become an unpleasant experience and can greatly affect them. It has been argued that depressed affect is amongst the most common symptoms in people in polar environments (Palinkas & Suedfeld, 2008). It appears that time in deployment plays a part in one’s affective state. For example, it has been found that scores of negative mood tend to be higher during the second half of the deployment (Steel, 2001). We also know that depressive states, while in an Antarctic station, tend to increase over time (Palinkas, Cravalho, & Browner, 1995). Such a rise has been associated with a higher chance of presenting a DSM-IV diagnosis (such as sleep-related disorders, personality disorders or substance-related disorders) (Palinkas, Glogower, et al., 2004). Therefore, the personnel selection process can be critical for a team safety and the mission success since failing to identify unsuited candidates might result in serious on-site consequences.
85
5.4.2
Consequences for the team
The consequences of isolation, and its related maladjustment factors, do not only affect the person who directly suffers from it but can also affect fellow crew members. For instance, it is known that one’s depressive state and irritability can reduce group harmony (Gunderson, 1968), and that the performance and satisfaction of each crew member is, in turn, influenced by group dynamics and an individual’s interaction with others (Palinkas, 2003; Sarris & Kirby, 2005). One individual failing to adjust well can have a negative effect on a whole team. For example, in an unpublished interview conducted by Jaksic, one former winter-over reported the case of a nurse whose “challenge was that
no one was getting sick” and got depressed as a result of the boredom. He remembers that all crew
members were affected by this situation and, as he stated, tried to “reach out” to her. He concluded by saying “if one of us is struggling, we tend to struggle all of us”. While the present research has identified some extent to which loneliness can be detrimental for an individual, it is strongly suggested that it can make a negative impact on the crew as a whole.
5.4.3
Consequences for the significant others
Going to an Antarctic station might not only be challenging for the individuals who are being deployed but also for their friends and family. For the whole duration of the stay, romantic partners staying back home experience more distress than their deployed partners (Norris, Paton, & Ayton, 2008; Taylor & McCormick, 1987). Also, from the winter-over’s point of view, keeping friends and relatives reassured might be at their own expense. Some winter-overs have reported not disclosing negative aspects of their experience to their family (Solignac, 2004) and, as a result, have to deal with those negative affects without the support from their family. This might explain why Palinkas, Johnson, and Boster (2004) found that even though the availability of friends and family remained constant over the time spent in Antarctica, satisfaction with the social support they provided decreased significantly. If one is struggling with one’s experience in Antarctica but does not share the details of this struggle with their friends and family, the support group will be of little help since they would not even know that certain aspects of the experience are problematic. This is in line with the ‘buffering hypothesis’ (Cohen & Wills, 1985) that states that social networks can act as a buffer protecting individuals from the adverse effect of stressful events (Cassel, 1976; Cobb, 1976). This protective effect of social support has since then been observed in a wide variety of stressful events; acculturation experience (Finch & Vega, 2003), stressful job (Abu Al Rub, 2004), road traffic accident (Holeva, Tarrier, & Wells, 2001) or health issues (Lackner et al., 2010).
Significant others are especially important for winter-overs as an Antarctic station presents another challenge; crowding. As defined by Stokols (1972, p. 276), crowding is the “disparity between the
86
available to him.”. Because most Antarctic stations offer little opportunity to get away from the people
one is living with, especially during winter, the sense of crowding or the lack of privacy are reported as major stressors by winter-overs (Godwin, 1986). It is known that social support can effectively counteract the effect of crowding on stress (Evans, Palsane, Lepore, & Martin, 1989). Because crowding generates unwanted social interactions, a logical strategy would be to withdraw from social contacts. Though such a strategy has been suggested as an efficient way to reduce stress (Evans, Rhee, Forbes, Allen, & Lepore, 2000), it also isolates the individual from others. As a result, one would not benefit as much from the potential social support that could be found around them. It has been empirically found that people who live in crowded environments not only display more social withdrawal, but also tend to ignore social support when it is offered (Evans & Lepore, 1993). Interestingly, even though the same participants sought less, and rejected more, any offered support, they considered the confederate who was offering support as being less supportive compared to participants who lived in uncrowded environments.
This can shed light on the findings observed in Antarctica. Palinkas, Johnson, and Boster (2004), for example, found that even though winter-overs regarded their friends and family to be equally available across their stay, the support they provided was perceived as being less satisfying over time. It is also interesting to note that family and friends can make the winter-over experience worse. For instance, in Study 1, one participant explained his bad mood by the fact that his girlfriend left him. In two unpublished interviews conducted by Jaksic in 2017, two participants explained how they had to deal with the death of their father while being in Antarctica. It is obvious that not only the distance itself but the news communicated in either way, the lack of social support and the impossibility to physically act when a problem occurs involving one’s loved ones can be detrimental for both parties.
5.4.4
Consequences for the organisation
Congruent with the model presented in this thesis, the present studies suggest that isolation could be a key element in adjusting to ICEs. Those who suffer from the isolation would have impaired cognitive abilities, impacting on their job performance. This is important because training and deploying crew members to an ICE is often costly and time-consuming. If the selection criteria do not allow predictions of how one will cope with the isolation, not only that employee will suffer some consequences but the organisation itself will have wasted some resources that would have been maximised with another employee. The organisation also takes the risk to have their whole on-site team being dragged down by the one individual who fails to fit. Finally, if one’s misfit becomes critical and an emergency evacuation is required, this would lead to further resource loss and cost for the National Antarctic Programme.
87 In addition, it was shown that while people can use a variety of strategies to regulate their privacy, walking outside was by far the preferred option. This indicates that most winter-overs, at some point, feel the need to escape from the confined habitat where fulfilling one’s privacy might be difficult. This must be taken into consideration by organisations dealing with ICEs and should prompt more research on how to better alleviate the weight of confinement. Though it is not suggested that National Antarctic Programmes do a poor job at selecting their personnel, evidence shows that there is definitely room for improvement. In conclusion, understanding that the direct consequence of the isolation can impact on the winter-over syndrome and job satisfaction could lead to more accurate recruitment criteria and personnel management.