Caracterización de LEN en la historia de la prensa colombiana

In Hammett and Burton’s (2005) review of TA stress and motivation, empirical evidence and theories which related to teachers rather than TAs were reviewed. This was justified by both the lack of research into TAs, and the stated blurring between teacher and TA roles. Because of the paucity of

is helpful to examine the evidence around teacher SE, and the theories which relate this research to the role of the teacher (Hammett & Burton, 2005).

Within teaching, SE refers to beliefs in one’s capability to achieve successful outcomes for pupils (Gibson & Dembo, 1984) and represents beliefs about the teacher’s ability to carry out tasks, such as to deliver the lesson content effectively, manage the classroom environment and successfully engage pupils. Tobin, Muller and Turner (2006) define SE in this domain as, “the extent to which teachers believe their efforts will have a positive effect on their students’ abilities, in redirecting their students’ behaviour and on their overall student achievement” (p. 303).

There has been much attention to the concept of teacher efficacy within the psychological literature. Tschannen-Moran, Woolfolk-Hoy & Hoy (1998) reviewed the literature, identifying over 100 articles referring to teacher efficacy. Over time, the concept has been linked to a range of important variables including pupil self-esteem and prosocial attitudes (Borton, 1991), school effectiveness (Hoy & Woolfolk, 1993), the success of programme implementation (Guskey, 1998), student achievement and motivation (Moore & Esselman, 1992), teachers’ professional commitment (Coladarci, 1992), and teacher stress and burnout (Brouwers & Tomic, 2000; Klassen & Chiu, 2010; Schwarzer & Hallum, 2008). This latter outcome might appear to be a key factor for TAs who are working within a demanding context, yet

frequently do not have the necessary skills, support or training to be able to carry out the role effectively.

A range of factors has been noted to contribute to teacher SE. These include work with parents (Skaalvik & Skaalvik, 2010), and previous experience in working with children with special educational needs (Gibbs, 2007). Rubin, Fernandes and Avgerinous (2013) tentatively suggest that administrative support and personal accomplishment (see below) are also supportive factors.

Teacher SE has been related to positive classroom outcomes. Thus

researchers have investigated the origins of SE beliefs in order to inform the development of SE during teacher training (Gaskill & Wollfolk-Hoy, 2002; Labone, 2004).

As outlined above, perceived SE is seen as being influenced by the exercise of choice, in either engaging or avoiding performance effort and intensity, and persistence. It is supported by performance accomplishments (what is achieved); vicarious learning (experience, apprenticeship); verbal persuasion and emotional arousal.

With a specific focus upon the task of teaching, Gibbs (2000) contends that there are at least four interacting aspects of SE that explain willingness and persistence in teaching in the face of identified external challenges:

• Behavioural SE: a belief in one’s capability to perform specific actions in specific teaching situations;

• Cognitive SE: a belief in one’s capability to exercise control over one’s thinking in specific teaching situations;

• Emotional SE: a belief in one’s capability to exercise control over one’s emotions in specific teaching situations;

• Cultural SE: a belief in one’s capability to perform specific actions in a culturally appropriate way.

Mirroring the Bandura model, Gibbs (2000) identifies influences upon teacher SE beliefs to be:

• performance accomplishments (experiencing success);

• vicarious experience (modelling the behaviour of significant others); • verbal persuasion (being persuaded one has the capability to overcome

• emotional and physiological arousal (emotions and moods affect SE judgments);

• imaginal-symbolisation (visualisation of performance in a specific situation); • intention to act (I will versus the “I can” of SE).

Poulou and Norwich (2002) examined the link between attributions and SE, finding that teachers’ attributions predicted their emotional and cognitive responses to pupils who displayed challenging behaviour. In turn, this was predictive of the teachers’ intentional behaviour, which then predicted some aspects of the actual behaviour within the classroom (Poulou & Norwich, 2002).

On consulting the literature, it is clear that a range of constructions of SE have been employed, with semantic issues adding to the difficulty in determining what is being measured. Dellinger, Bobbet, Olivier and Ellett (2008) outline the way in which the constructs of teacher efficacy and teacher SE within the research have created some of this confusion.

Dellinger et al. (2008) suggest that teacher efficacy is defined as teachers’ beliefs in their abilities to affect student performance (e.g., Armor, Conroy- Oseguera, Cox, King, at al., 1976; McLaughlin & Berman, 1977; Gibson & Dembo, 1984; Tschannen Moran et al., 1998). They contend that the literature omits the crucial role that is played by teacher belief in their ability to perform tasks within specific contexts. Teacher SE beliefs are defined as beliefs about successfully performing specific teaching tasks within the specific context (school, classroom, students). Dellinger et al. (2008) sought to make clear the distinction between teacher efficacy and teacher SE beliefs. To meet this need, an American Teachers’ Efficacy Beliefs System-Self (TEBS-Self) measure was devised as a research based measure of teacher SE beliefs grounded within the classroom context.

In relation to supporting a pupil with ASD, SE refers to one’s capabilities to organise and execute the courses of action which produce achievement in

academic, social and emotional development for students with complex needs. In turn, pupils with additional needs will benefit from having access to staff with high levels of SE for supporting their needs. Such staff will benefit from higher levels of SE by experiencing increased levels of satisfaction within the role.