Caracterización morfológica de los aislamientos

When implementing organic farming as a part of a new livelihood strategy, farmers enter into learning processes. Learning can thus be seen as a livelihood outcome. In our investigation of farmers who converted to organic farming we found that learning has taken place in three fields: 1) training and observation leading to increased awareness, 2) trial and error processes leading to technical improvements, and 3) a re-interpretation of earlier decisions in view of the achieved outcomes, leading to confirmation or change of livelihood strategies (Figure 37). In the following, we present and discuss the findings of the qualitative studies in these three fields.

Figure 37: Learning processes in adopting organic farming. Summary of the results of the qualitative studies.

Awareness creation

Farmers carefully observe the effects of farming practices in their fields. The observation and interpretation of effects can initiate a learning process that ultimately creates awareness for certain interrelations. Some farmers, for instance, observed that high fertilizer doses increase the height of the cotton plant, but not necessarily yields. High fertilizer application, however, renders the crop more prone to sucking pests. In the words of one farmer, "if one applies urea, the leaves become soft and sweet, so pest attack gets higher." Others observed that sucking pests occur less when cotton is intercropped with pulses, as the pests prefer pulses to cotton, and populations of beneficial insects can build up on the intercrop that help in controlling pests.

As mentioned in chapter 4.2, most organic farmers had observed that soil fertility in their fields improved after conversion: the soil became softer, was easier to plough and retained moisture better. One farmer narrated that already in the conventional system he noticed that the plough moved easier in the field boundaries where eradicated weeds had been deposited. In all our qualitative studies we could sense that organic farmers have become more aware that organic matter application is of central importance for soil fertility management. Many farmers mentioned having realized the need to take care of the farm environment and that "one needs to give something back to the soil" in order to keep it fertile. In this way, observations not only can lead to increased awareness, but also influence perceptions and attitudes.

In the process of developing awareness, farmers not only learn about the interrelations in their farming system from their own observation, but also from elders (traditional knowledge) and from other farmers they interact with. In addition, the extension activities of the governmental agricultural extension service or of the organic cotton initiative can contribute to this learning process. We found indications that trainings conducted by

Learning processes of the farmers

Awareness creation

• Observation and interpretation of changes in the fields create awareness for interrelations.

• The acquisition of new knowledge changes perceptions and attitudes.

Trial and error processes

• Farmers are in an ongoing process of trying out, observing effects, interpreting outcomes, adapting activities.

• Learning by making their own experiences and seeing the results.

• Sharing experience and interpretation with other farmers, thus influencing them.

Reflecting coping strategies

• Realization and validation are gradual processes, leading to affirmation or rejection.

• Realisation that organic farming can be a way to better cope with uncertainty of rains and markets.

Maikaal bioRe enhanced the farmers' awareness for the interactions between pest and predator populations. In these trainings, the farmers learnt about the different kinds of pests and beneficial insects that are present in cotton field and observed their feeding behaviour.

Trial and error process

Many farmers with whom we interacted – whether organic or conventional ones – were continuously experimenting on farming practices. They improvise on cropping patterns and nutrient management practices, or try out new crop varieties and inputs. In a trial and error process, they observe the effect of an innovation, and based on their assessment decide to continue or drop it. It appeared that learning on organic farming happens more profoundly if farmers can experience the advantages of an innovation 'on the job', rather than hearing about it. "I became convinced only after seeing it with my own eyes." and "Seeing is believing!" were statements frequently uttered in this context.

The conversion to organic farming thus is an ongoing process in which farmers decide to implement certain changes, observe the effects, validate the outcome, and further adapt until they reach a point of conviction (compare Schwaller, 2004: 104). In this process, farmers need to acquire new knowledge and skills, either through their own experimentation, from other farmers or through facilitation by extension services. The learning from co-farmers – in informal chats in the fields or in the villages – appeared to play a central role in this. Most of the interviewed farmers seemed to frequently and readily share their experience and their interpretation of the outcomes with other farmers.

Reflecting coping strategies

Often, the observation of outcomes and the trial and error processes related to organic farming have motivated the farmers to reflect on the chosen strategy. When re-interpreting their decision to convert in retrospective, most farmers indicated that they are content with the outcomes of the chosen strategy. They think that they are better off with the organic system and feel more satisfaction and security compared to the previous one. Some farmers, for instance, concluded that for them organic farming is a way to better cope with the problem related to erratic rains, as the organic manures improve water infiltration and retention in the soil and thus make the crop less vulnerable to drought. Others voiced the opinion that due to the reduced production costs they are less prone to become indebted, as the financial loss in case of crop failure is lower, and so is the necessity to take up loans. Some farmers seem to be realizing that the relation of costs and revenues and the risk factor involved in farming are at least equally important as the yields. In the words of one farmer, "a clever farmer is the one who does not need to spend much on inputs." The majority of the organic farmers we interviewed – in some way or the other – expressed that the conversion to the organic system is a way to improve soil fertility, to reduce production costs, to increase farm incomes, to reduce debts, and to reduce risks. This realisation influences the perceptions and attitudes of the household members, and thus changes the basis of future decision-making. However, there obviously were also farmers who reached at a less positive assessment of organic farming and decided to re-convert. Two farmers explained that they had tried out organic farming for some years, but they were not willing or able to bear the losses due to low yields. The farmers who were excluded from the group due to the use of inputs banned in organic farming also fall into the category of those who decided to drop organic farming within their livelihood strategy. Altogether, the process of re-interpreting former decisions based on the actual outcomes

thus not always leads to a re-affirmation of the chosen strategy, but may also cause the actor to drop it. We will take up this issue in the following chapter.