2.2 CLIMA ESCOLAR
2.2.5 Caracterización de las variables de clima de aula, propuestas por Moos y Trickett
T h e v ariegated political an d adm inistrative terrain through w h ich Ibadan has traversed over th e years has left a sign ifican t im p ressio n on th e housing situation in th e city. F rom th e traditional p o litical system through th e colonial era in to the interm ix o f post-independence civilian-cum -m ilitary dispensation, m an y political decisions h av e w o rk ed in favour o f Ib ad an , w h ile a few o th ers h av e dealt a significant b lo w to housing developm ent. Ibadan has served co n tin uo usly as the capital o f th e W estern R egion from 1946 to 1962, W estern N igeria from 1963 to 1967, W estern State from 1967 to 1976, O yo State (including O sun S tate) from 1976 to 1991, an d ex clusively for O yo State from 1991 to date. T his consistent adm inistrative statu s has enabled Ibadan to en jo y several public housing p ro gram m es, such as th e establishm ent o f residential estates and reservations.
Infrastructural facilities th at arc co m p lem en tary to housing p rovision arc m ore available in Ibadan. A ll these are to th e cred it o f th e city.
Ibadan h as also h ad an unfavourable d o se o f p o litical in fluen ce. Each successive go vern m en t, especially th e post in dep en den ce civilian an d m ilitary adm inistration have been accused o f b astard izin g th e various go vern m en t estates and reservations b y rep artitioning plots o f lan d , including o p en spaces, in these choice areas to allo cate to their p o litical and m ilitary friends/colleagues.
B ut, p erh ap s, th e m o st pervading influen ce o f politics w hich has stubbornly left its m a rk are th e seem ingly un guid ed p o litical utteran ces o f key p o litical figures in g o vern m en t. F or exam p le, an im portant politician in go vern m en t in the Second R epublic o n ce m ad e a unilateral d eclaratio n w h en he said th at any b u ild in g con structio n w ork th at could reach th e lintel le v e l b efo re th ey arc spotted by th e tow n p lanning auth o rities sh o uld n o t be dem olished. T his w as o stensibly said to sco re a political p o in t due to p ressure from p arty m em b ers and developers w h o w ere n o t com fortable w ith th e d eterm in ed efforts o f th e town p lanning authorities to en su re a liveab le environm ent in th e ab sen ce o f a city
w ide ph ysical develo p m en t plan. D evelopers sub seq u en d y took ad van tage o f the inadequately eq u ip p ed and m an ned developm ent co n tro l m ach in ery o f th e town p lanning auth o rities to start develo p m en t o v er the w eekends. A s a resu lt, m o st
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structures had reached th e lin tel level b efo re th ey w ere sp o tted b y the tow n p lanning authorities an d , w ere, therefore, exem p t from dem olition. T his process largely explains th e m o d e m slum th at spraw ls across th e Ibadan-L agos Road.
H ow ever, w h a t seem ed to be a clev er w ay o f sid e-track in g p lanning regulations now has m o st undesiring effects. M any residential buildings n o w have n o adequate veh icu lar access. T h e re is also th e p ro b lem o f o ver-develo pm ent o f land. T h is has le d to inadequate b asic social and in frastru ctu ral facilities.
U n fo rtun ately, either b y d efau lt o r om ission, there has not been an y declaration w ith th e sam e w e ig h t and influen ce b y an y public/polirical figure to co un ter this p ublic statem ent. It still continues to significandy influen ce develo p m en t in the peri-urban areas o f Ibadan.
4 .
Socio-cultural
fac to rsS o m e p arts o f Ibadan, esp ecially the co re areas, have su ffered serious housing pro b lem s because o f th e tenacity w ith w hich indigenes exp ress their cultural affin ity in th ese areas. T h is has resulted in w h at is know n in N igerian p arlan ce as p o litical neglect o r o versigh t o f th ese areas. In reality, how ever, several effo rts a t allo w in g p lanning influen ce to penetrate these areas h av e o ften m e t w ith resistance. Successive go vern m en ts have thus tactfu lly avo id ed th e core areas to avo id p o litical and social ripples. H o u sin g conditions in th ese areas a re still very path etic. A large proportion o f residential buildings h av e n o easy access and lack b asic infrastructural facilities, w h ile th e housing en viro n m en t has progressively b een degraded. T h ere is , to d ate, little o r n o re-developm ent effo rts in these
‘special a re a s’.
T o com pound th e ex istin g housing problem s, w aste m an agem en t is very p o o r in m o st p arts o f Ibadan. T h e stream s that abound in Ibadan arc ready receptacles for b o th so lid and liq u id w aste. In ad d itio n , th e re arc several op en dum ps th at dot th e urb an landscape for d om estic, industrial an d b iom edical w aste.21' T h e w aste m an agem ent p ro b lem o f Ibadan has received b o th national and international attention. N evertheless, th e co n certed efforts o f th e d ifferen t agencies and organizations to atten d to this p ro b lem have yield ed little result. T h ere is still an on go in g b atd e w ith w aste in virtually all parts o f th e city o f Ib ad an . T h is has m ade th e affected areas u nhealthy an d unliveable. 20
T. Agbola and CO . Olatubara: Housing Situation in Ibadan a t the Close o f the 20th Century 99
20 IHSE. Biomedical W aste Study in Ibadan, 1999
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100 Tfje a y S ta le o f I b a d a n : Texts & C on tex ts
National and international support in improving the housing environment in Ibadan
T he h o u sin g situation in Ibadan and its attendan t problem s h av e n o t esc ap ed the atten tio n o f national and international organizations. A n um b er o f assisted urban projects/program m es have b een em b arked upon w ith v aryin g records o f success.
S o m e o f these p ro jects are briefly exam ined below .
Sustainable Ibadan Project (SIP)
T he U nited N atio n s C en tre for H um an Settlem en ts (U N C H S) lau n ch ed the Sustainable G tie s P rogram m e (SC P) as th e operatio nal arm o f th e g lo b al W orld B ank/U N C H S/U N D P U rban M anagem ent P rogram m e. Ibadan becam e th e first c ity to be so d esignated in N igeria through th e Sustainable Ibadan P ro ject (SIP) to co n so lidate an d form alize th e techniques for environm ental p lanning and m an agem en t for sustainable grow th. T h e SIP w as o fficially launched in 1995 and the m ain environm ental issu es iden tified a t th e 1995 C ity C onsultation w ere w aste m an agem ent, w a te r su p p ly and th e institutionalization o f cnviron-m cntal planning and m an agem ent process.21
T h e detrim ental effe cts o f th e d eterio ratin g Ibadan urb an en viro n m en t are felt in all sph eres o f th e en viro n m en t in clu d in g natural resources, w ater, air, etc.
In th e co re areas o f Ib ad an , there is a g en eral lack o f basic h yg ien e an d sanitation facilities, w h ile th e peripheral areas o f th e c ity are gro w in g w ith o u t adequate p lan n in g, characterized b yurban sprwaL22 T h e U N C H S n o ted th at th e p ast p lanning effo rts fo r Ibadan have b een under-reso urced and sporadic, an d that the Ibadan c ity authorities have n o t system atically addressed the n ee d fo r a dynam ic, responsive, p u b lic-o rien ted an d p articipatory develo p m en t p lanning process, w hich w ould lead to th e preparation o f an im plcm entable plan. T h e inevitable results are th at people d o not feel co m m itted to p ro tect and m aintain public
21 SIP, “An Environmental Planning and Management Newsletter o f Sustainable Ibadan Project” Ibadan EPM News 1996; 1(1): 1-2.
22 UNCHS, Managing Sustainable Health Growth and Development o f Ibadan: Environmental Profile o f the Metropolitan A rea (Ibadan: CASSAD, 1994a); UNCHS, “Sustainable Cities Conceptual Applications o f a United Nations Programme” Habitat, 1994b.
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services p ro vided in th e ir n eighbourhoods because th ey are rarely a p art o f the d ecision to design, lo cate an d finance th e services in th e first instance.23
In an effo rt to address these p ro b lem s, SIP w as in itiated and th e principles o n w hich th e p ro ject w as established are based o n th e partnership participation ap p ro ach , w hich adopts th e w o rk in g gro u p co n cep t in th e environm ental p lanning and m an agem ent process.24 T h e various w o rkin g gro u p s are as shown in table 4.5. A ll th e five urb an and six rural lo cal go vern m en t areas that m ake up Ibadan a re in v o lv e d in th e SIP. Sketch es o f evaluation reveal ap p reciab le progress by the SIP. but m uch still needs to be done.
T. A gbola and CO . Olatubara: Housing Situation in Ibadan a t the Close o f the 20 th Century 101
Tabic 4.5 T h e w o r k i n g g r o u p s o f t h e S u s t a i n a b l e I b a d a n P r o j e c t S / N W o r k i n g G r o u p ( W G ) Y e a r o f
o r ig in
W h o in a u g u r a t e d th e W G
M e m b e r s h ip R e m a r k s
1. B o d i j a M a r k e t A re a 1 9 9 5 S I P & B o d ija C o m m . D e v . A s s .
17 C o o r d i n a t e s a ll
t h e S W G in B o d ija M a r k e t .
x B o d ija M a r k e t W a s t e M a n a g e m e n t
1 9 9 6 P r o f . M K R S r id h a r 17
b . B o d i j a M a r k e t W a t e r S u p p ly
1 9 9 6 E n g r . A d e s u y i 2 0
c . B o d i j a M a r k e t R o a d / D r a in a g c
1 9 9 6 S I P 17
d . B o d i j a M a r k e t T o ile t I m p r o v e m e n t
1 9 9 6 S I P 1 8
c . B o d i j a M a r k e t F o o d S a f e t y
1 9 9 6 P r o f . E g u n jo b i 15 N o n f u n c t io n a l
S W G ( f ) B o d ija M a r k e t
W o m e n / C h il d r e n
1 9 9 6 S I P 17 N o n f u n c t io n a l
23 UNCHS, Managing Sustainable Health Growth and D evebpment o f Ibadan: Environmental Profile o f the Metropolitan A rea (Ibadan: CASSAD, 1994a); NCH S, “Learning from Experience o f SCP Cities: O utline o f the SIP Environmental Profile”, (draft version, N airobi, Kenya, 1997).
24 C.N. Anyaogu, “T he Utilization o f the Working Group Concept in the Environmental Planning and Management Process: A Critical Evaluation o f the Sustainable Ibadan Project Experience”, Unpublished M U RP dissertation, Centre for Urban and Regional Planning University o f Ibadan, Ibadan, 1999.
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102 T h e C ity S ta te o f I b a d a n : Texts & C on tex ts
S / N W o r k i n g G r o u p (W G ) Y e a r o f W h o i n a u g u r a t e d th e W G
M e m b e r s h ip R e m a r k s
S W G 2 I b a d a n W a s t e
R e c y c lin g 3 S I P C o o r d i n a t in g
4 I b a d a n W a t e r S u p p l y 1 9 9 6 T h e T S U / S I P x O d o A k c u S p r in g
W a t e r D e v e lo p m e n t
1 9 9 6 S I P 15
b . M i n i W a t e r W o r k s D e v e lo p m e n t
1 9 9 6 S I P / T S U 14
c. O d o O n a / G a d a C o m m u n it y W a t e r a n d S a n it a t io n
1 9 9 7 S I P / T S U 17
d . D e e p W e l l B o r e h o le D e v e lo p m e n t
1 9 9 6 S I P 15
e. I b a d a n S p r i n g W a t e r D e v e lo p m e n t
1 9 9 6 1 9 9 6 13
5 I b a d a n M a p p in g I n f o r m a t io n C o m m it t e e
1 9 9 6 T S U / S I P 3 7
6 I b a d a n M a p p in g I n f o r m a t io n C o m m it t e e
1 9 9 6 T S U / S I P 19
7 P o v e r t y A lle v ia t io n N e w l y f o r m e d
w o r k i n g g r o u p s o f S I P . Y e t t o b e in a u g u r a t e d 8 N e ig h b o u r h o o d
U p g r a d in g 9 S t r e e t T r a d i n g
S o u r c e . Auyaogu, (1999); Kq: 1 -6 Working Group; a - f Sub-Working Group
World Bank-assisted urban projects
T h e apparent sh o rtfall betw een h o u sin g su p p ly and dem and h as created housing shortages w h ich have sub seq u en d y le d to overcrow ding and over-utilizatio n o f
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available facilities. T his problem is m o st glarin g a t th e p erip h eral an d new slum areas o f Ibadan. It h as attracted th e attention o f foreign agencies, particularly the W o rld B ank. V arious effo rts h av e been m ade to reverse this tren d an d this has le d th e W o rld B ank to assist in raking m easures a t im p ro vin g the liv in g conditions in Ibadan, u sin g th ree neighbourhoods a t d ifferen t d egrees o f deterioration as p ilot projects. T h e three neighbourhoods are M okola, Y em ctu an d A gugu. T he M inistry o f L ands, H ousing and Su rvey (M L H S) in collaboration w ith th e then Ibadan M etropolitan P lan n in g A u th o rity (IM PA ) estim ated in 1984 th at a total o f ab o u t 62,000 p eo p le w e re to b en efit from d ie project.
T h e then IM PA w as the agen cy responsible for the p lan n in g o f Ibadan and th e three selected p ilo t p ro ject areas fall w ithin its p lanning area. T h e W o rld B ank g av e d ie approval fo r th e preparation o f bids o r ten d er docum ents. It also gave a detailed structural an d en gin eerin g design. H o w ever, alo n g th e lin e, IM PA w as disso lved as Ibadan w as broken into four lo cal go vern m en t areas v iz , Lagclu, O luyo lc, A kinycle and Ibadan M unicipal G overnm ent (IM G ) areas. T h e IM G w as thus saddled w ith th e project b ecau se th e th ree selected p ilot p ro ject areas fall w ithin this local go vern m en t area. F or the purpose o f p ro p er im plem entation o f th e project, the W o rld B an k suggested the estab lish m en t o f th e C om m unity Im p ro vem en t P rogram m e U nit w h ich has its headquarters a t M apo.
T h e O yo State C o m m un ity Im provem ent P roject (C IP) w as financed by the W orld B ank, the O yo S tate g o vern m en t, an d th e p articip atin g local governm ents (Ibadan N o rth L G A an d O n a A ra L G A ), w hich arc p arts o f th e L G A s that succeed ed IM G and in to w hich th e p ro ject falls. T h e W o rld B an k co n trib uted the largest percentage o f th e overall p ro ject cost. W h ile th e W o rld B an k provides the foreign currency, th e O yo State g o vern m en t, ap art from g uaran teein g th e loan for the g o vern m en t, is also responsible for the paym ent o f a coun terp art fun d in local curren cy o n b eh alf o f th e lo cal governm ents. T h e lo cal g o vern m en ts, on the o th e r hand, b ein g th e o w n e r an d th e greatest b en eficiary o f th e project, m ade provision for the w o rkers an d th e p aym en t o f their salary. T h e p ro ject at th e pilot sites w as eventually co m p leted and h an d ed o v er in A u g u st, 1997. A m o n g the in frastru ctu ral fad tilitics an d am enities p ro vided and h an d ed over w ith in each o f th e three project areas acco rd in g to A kinyode25 arc:
T. Agbola and CO. Olatubara: Housing Situation in Ibadan a t the Close o f the 20th Century 103
25 B.F. Akinyode, “A n Appraisal o f Community Improvement Programmes in Developing Countries: A case Study o f W orld Bank Assisted Urban Renewal Project in Ibadan”, Unpublished M URP Dissertation, Centre for Urban and Regional
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a. Mokola
• 2 new transformers and the upgrading o f the existing ones
• 11 compartment public toilets (VIP toilets)
• 164 street lights
• About 9km drainage (wall blocks)
• About 9km o f tarred roads
• Refuse disposal site at FESTAC area
• About 6km new w ater pipes.
b. Yemctu
• A total o f 5km and 0.9km o f tarred roads at the main scheme and resettlement site, respectively
• A total o f 12.3km and 1.6km blockwall line drains at the main scheme and resettlement site, respectively
• 1 box culvert
• 6 V IP public toilets
• 1 converted health centre
• 164 street lights at both main scheme and the resettlement site.
c.
Agugu-Oremeji
• A total o f 6.2 km and 1.8 km tarred road at the m ain scheme and resettlement site at Ogbcrc
• A total o f 13.4 km blockwall lined drains at the main scheme and resettlement site
• T he Fatima Usm an Health Centre at Oremeji
• 1 VIP public toilet at Oremeji
• 1 police post/post office
• 80 street lights
• Ahm ed Usman Primary School at Ogberc.
In all, $1.74 m illio n , $1,795 m illion an d $2,162 m illion w e re allo cated for the im plem entation o f th e projects in M okola, Y em etu an d A g u g u, respectively. T h e variations in b u d get allocation w e re due to size and th e num bers o f facilities p ro vided in each o f th e p ro ject area.
A ccessib ility and en viro n m en tal conditions h av e g read y im p ro ved in these projects sites an d p ro p erty values have in creased significandy. T h e re is, how ever, the urgen t need to replicate th e projects in o th er slum an d run-dow n areas o f Ibadan to im p ro v e th e overall h o u sin g situation in th e city.
11)4 T h e C ity S ta le o f Ib a d a n : Texts & C on tex ts
Planning, University o f Ibadan, Ibadan; 1998.
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T. Agbola and CO . Olalubara: Housing Situation in Ibadan a t the Close o f the 20tb Century 105
Other assisted programmes
T h e U n ited N ations C hildren's F un d (U N IC E F ) has also been co llab o ratin g w ith th e Federal G overnm ent o f N igeria in the area o f U rb an B asic Services (UBS).
M an agem en t o f th e U B S in O yo State is through th e F ederal M in istry o f W orks an d H ousing and th e O yo S tate D epartm ent o f L ands an d P h ysical P lannin g. T he U nited N atio n s C h ildren's F un d provides o th er n ecessary assistan ce. T h e UBS p ro ject in Ibadan focusses o n th e p rovision o f essential services that w ill have a p ro fo u n d im p act o n im p ro vin g th e w elfare and livin g conditions o f the targeted beneficiaries.26 S o m e o f th e sp ecific areas o f concentration are:
• O rganization an d em pow erm ent o f selected slum com m unities
• P rovision o f functional health care facilities
• P rovision o f potable w ater
• Im proved sanitation through con structio n o f p ublic toilets an d effective d isposal o f refuse generated
• E stablishm ent o f com m unity ch ild care centres an d vo catio n al training centres
• Im proved access to m icro -cred it facilities.
A n um b er o f criteria w e re u sed in selectin g a slu m area fo r th e U B S project intervention. T h ese criteria include:
• E xisten ce o f com m unity o rgan izatio n ^ ) o r asso c ia tio n ^ ) (C D A , CD C , C BO )
• U n p lan n ed areas, b ad ro ad netw orks, lack o f basic am enities
• P oor environm ental sanitation
• P oor o r n o education facilities
• P o o r o r n o health care facilities
• H igh population o f vu ln erab le gro u p s (w om en and ch ildren ), especially strcct/w orking children
• D ilap id ated buildings and o vercro w d in g o f h o u sin g units
T h e UBS p ro je c t started in Ibadan in late 1996 u n d er th e coordination o f the O yo State D ep artm en t o f L ands and P hysical P lan n in g and U N IC E F TT Z one, Ibadan. S o m e o f th e m ajo r activities undertaken so far in clud e th e follow ing:
26 OYSG/UNICEF. UBS Project at a Glance: Information Brochure on UNICEF - Assisted Urban Basic Services (UBS) Project in Ibadan, 1999.
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106 T h e C ity S ta te o f I b a d a n : Texts & C ontex ts
• D iagnostic survey o f th e four selected slu m com m unities (M apo, Eleta, A yeye an d A gbcni)
• P reparation o f local and com m unity plans o f actio n for th e selected L G A s an d U B S project sites
• Sensitization o f 80 traditional chiefs an d opinion leaders on U B S project concept
• C onstructio n o f a new com m unity h ealth centre in A gb en i com m unity
• C onstructio n o f 16 h an d -d u g w e lls and 250 concrete rings in th e four p ro ject sites
• T rain in g o f 60 com m unity volunteers o n environm ental sanitation in the 4 p ro ject sites
• T rain in g o f 2 0 artisans in h an d -d u g w ells and con structio n o f Sanplat laterines in A yeye and A gb en i com m unity
• Establishment of a waste sorting centre in Ayeye
• Upgrading of drainage in Ayeye Community
• E stablishm ent o f seven recreation centres in A yeye, A g b en i, M apo and E leta com m unity.
T he W o rld H ealth O rganization h as also started an in -ro ad into environm ental develo p m en t p ro gram m es in Ibadan. It h as, through its H ealthy C ities P rogram m e, b een w o rkin g in clo se collaboration w ith th e SIP to o ffer assistance a t so m e d esignated parts o f Ibadan, esp e cially th e B odija m ark et area, w h ere a food safety p ro gram m e know n as H azard A n alysis C ritical C o n tro l Point (H A C C P) h as b een initiated.
The challenges of the 21st century
T h e 2 1 st cen tu ry p o ses serious ch allen ges for urb an housing in th e c ity o f Ibadan.
T his is b ecau se there is expected to b e a m o re rap id rate o f urb an izatio n , which w ill sub sequen tly lead to a v asd y in creased p ressure o n ex istin g urb an facilities, m ore spatial exp an sio n , a higher tendency for th e creation o f m ore inform al setd em en ts, an d a n increase in th e n um b er o f environm entally d egrad ed residential districts. T h is w ill largely be en gin eered b y th e com bined effects o f a globalization d rive th a t is expected to b e sign ifican d y m ore w idespread in this cen tury, th e p o ssib le im provem ents in th e n atio n al an d local eco n o m ics, as w ell as all o th er socioeconom ic im provem ents th at a re likely to atten d th e current dem ocratic p o litical dispensatio n in th e country.
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T. Agbola and C O . Olatubara: Housing Situation in Ibadan a t tht Clost o f tbt 20th Ctntury 107 T h ere is n o g ain sayin g th e fact that urb an m an agers w ill face a herculean task as w e p ro gress in this 2 1 st century. T h e outcom e o f th ese h igh ly probable effects w ill largely b e d eterm ined by th e readiness o f urb an m an agers and all stakeholders to m ak e concerted effo rts to m ak e th e c ity liveab le and sustain ab le. N egative consequences th at a re th e sure o utco m e o f an y environm entally unfriendly decision w ill spell cum ulative d isaste r fo r th e c ity o f Ibadan. H o w ever, the d eterm ined effo rts o f a ll co n cern ed tow ards urb an develo p m en t w ill elim inate a n y negative consequences an d propel th e city o n th e p ath o f q u ick recovery from en viro n m en tal decadence. S o m e areas o f concern are h igh ligh ted below:
1. There is an urgent need for a policy tool to guide and control the spatial development o f Ibadan. T he city o f Ibadan has developed hitherto without a dty- widc physical development plan. The continued absence o f a mastcr/structurc plan is not in the best interest o f sustainable development o f the city. It is strongly believed that the resources and personnel to produce the physical development plan arc already in place and that it only requires the interest and determination of the government to make its production and adoption a priority. Unfortunately, the continued delay in producing it is indireedy costing the government m ore in terms o f expenditure o f both internal and external funds to correct, eliminate o r reduce the adverse consequences o f the spatial development o f Ibadan without an adopted mastcr/structurc plan. T he socioeconomic and environmental consequences in the residential districts o f Ibadan arc difficult to accurately quantify. There is enough evidence through to prove that they arc staggering.
2. The state and federal governm ents and international agencies m ust show more interest in the upgrading o f the various run-down residential districts that spread across the city. There arc on-going efforts, especially in the form o f assistance from the W orld Bank, UNICEF, UNDP and other international organizations.
However, the im pact o f current efforts is still insignificant considering the enormity o f the housing and other environmental problems at hand.
3. However, there is a limit to the resources available to the international organizations and, therefore, the extent o f their funding and involvement in the upgrading o f the run-down residential districts in Ibadan. T here is a need to internally reduce o r eliminate the conditions that are producing the environmental decay in the urban residential districts in Ibadan. O nce a w rong spatial decision is taken and effected, it is usually very difficult, expensive o r sometimes impossible to reverse it. I f developments arc carried out in compliance with approved plans, environmental side-effects will be minimal. There is, therefore, a need for