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Results regarding the relative influence on student drinking of the injunctive norm of reference groups that vary in social proximity were more varied than for the descriptive norm. In the first instance, greater perceived approval by friends and parents were significantly associated with heavier drinking when examined alone. For parents, approval by the father figure had a stronger association with heavier drinking than the approval of the mother did. However, consistent with prior research (Neighbors et al., 2008: 579), the association with drinking was not significant when the injunctive norm of parents was examined in the context of other predictors. However, in contrast to other multivariate research, including descriptive and injunctive norm variables for different reference groups (Neighbors et al., 2008: 579), my results show that approval by friends was associated with a decrease in drinking when controlling for other variables. Further investigation revealed that personal approval and the perceived drinking of friends are mediators between the perception of friends’ approval and personal drinking. This indicates that the perceived approval of friends possibly only affects personal drinking through the effect it has on the perception of friends’ drinking and personal approval of drinking. The existence of such a mediating effect has previously been theorised by Perkins (1997: 193). While the perceived approval by friends is associated with a decrease in personal drinking in the final regression model, the initial analysis already showed that the perceived approval of students
37 Gender, race, age, year in school, fraternity/sorority membership, student status (full‐time, part‐time), hours per
week working for pay and volunteering, and school region.
38 The actual norm was represented by the median for the question pertaining to the “number of alcoholic drinks
in general is associated with a slight decrease in personal drinking. In line with other research, this negative relationship persisted in the presence of other predictors in the final model (Neighbors et al., 2008: 579). The lack of the association between personal drinking and approval of drinking by students in general can possibly be explained by the large difference between personal and perceived approval, because students tend to think that they are personally much more conservative than Stellenbosch students in general.
The difference in the perceptions of more distal, unimportant reference groups was consistent with findings by Holtz and Miller, who conducted a classical study on how the differences in perceptions of the opinion of others vary by viewing these others as part of one’s in‐group or part of an irrelevant out‐group. They found that perceptions of the in‐group induce a larger sense of similarity than the out‐group does and additionally, that survey respondents were more certain about their opinions of their in‐group (1985: 890).
The need to assume similarity between oneself and significant others is partly explained by social comparison theory, which postulates that individuals’ certainty about their own attitude increases by the degree they see their beliefs as shared by others (Festinger, 1954). This essentially means that individuals will seek reassurance for their own attitude (and behaviour) by associating with groups that they perceive as holding similar beliefs as their own. Moreover, the need to avoid difference and obtain agreement between themselves and other in‐group members is most salient in conditions where membership of the group is defined as desirable (Festinger, 1954).
Social comparison theory therefore explains the testimonials of interviewees about peers directly trying to influence one another to drink, be it through invitations to go out with them, buying them a drink, or even questioning their reasons for not drinking in social circumstances. According to Goffman’s dramaturgical perspective, ‘[w]hen people meet in social situations, they cooperate like teams of actors to ”keep the show running” and uphold a certain definition of reality’ and furthermore, ‘individuals are concerned to present particular characters or versions of themselves to the audiences they meet’ (Scott, 2008: 113‐114). Therefore, by not drinking alcohol, an individual is indirectly challenging alcohol consumers’ own attitude and the mutual definition of the social situation. Conversely then, if an individual overestimates the reassurance for a behaviour from an important reference group with whom association is desirable, whether he or she already has an attitude in coherence with that behaviour or not, they will be more likely to engage in that behaviour and possibly adopt a similar attitude to in‐group members. Furthermore, as will be discussed later, these initial perceptions of social definitions regarding what behaviour is desirable will determine which peer cluster students associate with. As Bourdieu indicates, social interaction is competitive and for students to improve their position in the social field of the university they must accumulate capital (Thomson, 2008: 69). The social capital students ‘choose’ to accumulate will depend on their perceptions of the desirability of certain behaviour within the current social field they occupy. Acting in certain ways, in line with what is socially desirable, expresses support for a certain type of social capital, which in turn leads to the accumulation of social capital for that student. Hence, the link between the individual and the accumulation of social capital is dependent on their perception of social norms.