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ability of these DW systems to print highly precise patterns on conformal and non-planar surfaces along with the ability of AM systems to print an infinite amount of different shaped structures enables the design and creation of integrated, complex, and conformal electronics housed in a spatially efficient and structurally sound product [1]. This section will discuss the previous integration and application of DW conductive inks with additively manufactured parts to create complex functional electronics.

2.3.1 Hybrid AM DW Electronics systems

In order to prevent the need for separate system printing of AM parts and DW electronic traces, companies and labs have developed fully homogenous systems combining the two technologies into one hands-free process in which the system produces embedded functional electronics. This technology has progressed over time with a start/stop integrated stereolithography and direct extrusion of

conductive inks system developed at the University of Texas at El Paso in 2012 [58]. This system, shown in

Figure 2.11, featured a 250/50 SLA machine with a nScrypt ink dispensing system. Utilizing laser conductive ink curing, this system was able to successfully create functional 2D and 3D 555 timer circuits formed via DIW extrusion conductive ink traces onto SLA-printed structure. Although this process was able to demonstrate the capabilities of hybrid AM-DIW electronics systems, the required subprocesses were manual and its products featured low power application due to high trace resistivity.

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Figure 2.11: Combined stereolithography and DIW system developed at UTEP for creating complex AM electronic devices [58].

Researchers at UTEP have since progressed in their electrically functional AM device research with the creation of a robotic multi-process system. This system features a six-axis robot working as the centerpiece combining two fused filament fabrication printers with separate materials for multi-material printing as well as a gantry with subtractive machining, copper wire embedding, DIW fluid extrusion, electrical component placing, and conductive foil application [59].

In 2013, researchers at The University of Akron published their progress on hybridizing the direct write of electronics and projection microstereolithography [60]. Their process involved dispersing carbon nanotubes in a photocurable polymer to create a conductive path within the rest of a

photocurable part to create a 3D structure with embedded electronics. This process photocured the conductive photocurable polymer while it was being printed to create 3D thin conductive ‘wires’. These wires would maintain their shape while non-conductive photopolymer was cured around them to create

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3D electronic AM structures, as shown in Figure 2.12. Information regarding the resistivity of the polymer carbon nanotube structure was not reported; however, it can be assumed that it was much higher than typical metal loaded inks.

Figure 2.12: System for combining nonconductive photocurable polymer with photocurable conductive material to create complex 3D electronic structures [60]

In 2015, Jang and coauthors documented their process integrating vat photopolymerization (VP) and direct write extrusion to create 3D circuits. Their process involved creating a partial structure using VP, removing the structure, cleaning and drying the structure, depositing/curing conductive inks and components, and then repeating until completion [61]. Although this process demonstrated a good proof of concept for integrating AM and DIW of conductive inks, the ink used featured a resistivity almost four orders of magnitude higher than bulk silver. This relatively high resistivity was a product of the photopolymer not being able to withstand a processing temperature of 190°C, required by the other ink option presented in the study. The researchers also had to insert separate electronic components into the structure rather than only using conductive inks to achieve 3D functionality, as shown in Figure 2.13. The process also featured a separate manual cleaning/drying phase for the partial VP structure which created a long and non-automated process. However, the researchers were able to create a 3D light sensing LED circuit using their integrated process.

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Figure 2.13: Process for integrating AM and DIW to create complex electronics utilizing the removal and cleaning of VP parts [61].

In 2017, researchers at Duke University were able to break the mold of using separate processes for combining creating 3D electronics using AM through employing the fused filament fabrication (FFF) of dual-materials with conductive thermoplastic filaments. The researchers utilized copper-based, graphene-based, and carbon black-based conductive filament in combination with typical PLA as a dielectric. Utilizing these filaments to create smaller electrical subcomponents, researchers were able to create a high-pass filter, embedded component, and free-standing conductive structures. Figure 2.14 illustrates the process of combining dielectric and conductive FFF to create a 3D embedded LED structure [62].

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Figure 2.14: Embedded LED created through the FFF of conductive and nonconductive polymer-based filaments [62].

As a final example of non-commercial 3D electronics AM systems, researchers at Georgia Institute of Technology created the m⁴ 3D printer combining inkjet, fused filament fabrication, direct ink writing, and aerosol jetting technologies [63]. This printer utilized these AM processes along with pic-and-place robotics and intense pulsed light sintering to create complex devices including those with electrical functionality. Utilizing the combined AM capabilities in an uninterrupted process, the

researchers were able to create a stretchable LED light ribbon with embedded conductive ink, as shown in Figure 2.15. To demonstrate 3D conductive trace functionality the researchers created a structure with vertical vias that were cured in-situ using the heated bed and a post-printing oven cure; the final product is shown in Figure 2.15 as well. The process also featured the ability to utilize pre-fabricated

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electronic components, such as a LED chip, in combination with the AM processes which utilized a FFF structure and DIW silver electrodes as shown in Figure 2.16 [63].

Figure 2.15: AM produced stretchable LED ribbon(left) and vertical LED connecting via’s (right) produced using four-in-on additive manufacturing system [63].

Figure 2.16: Four-in-one AM system used in conjunction with pre-fabricated chip LED to create an embedded electronic LED structure [63].

Companies aiming to commercialize the combined AM-electronics capabilities have created printers with integrated AM structures and DW conductive traces. Voxel8 created an affordable printer

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combining FFF and DIW conductive inks. The printer utilizes a pneumatic extrusion process do deposit an ink that cures at room temperature to allow for the designing and rapid prototyping of electrically functional AM parts. This technology has been demonstrated on functional products such as a drone with embedded electrical interconnects as shown in Figure 2.17. However, this process results conductive interconnects featuring a resistivity of approximately 31 times the value of bulk silver.

Additionally, the DragonFly 2020 printer, by Nano Dimension, is a multimaterial jetting AM process that jets both dielectric materials and conductive nanoparticle inks. Nano Dimension advertises the ability to rapidly prototype RF active devices, sensors, multilayer PCBs, and molded interconnect devices [64]. The silver nanoparticle ink is typically cured via infrared and heat treated during post-processing to achieve a resistivity of 5% to 30% of bulk Copper [65]. Although this resistivity demonstrates an improvement upon Voxel8, there is still room for improvement. An example PCB printed using the DragonFly Pro is shown in Figure 2.18 [66].

Figure 2.17: Drone with IC chip made functional through combining FFF and DIW of conductive inks in the Voxel8 printer [59].

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Figure 2.18: Fully AM produced PCB produced throught the inkjetting of conductive and non-conductive materials in the DragonFly Pro AM system [66].