Catequesis, sacramentos y centros de misión

The methods used for the studies of political communication in this thesis are befitting of what has been labelled microanalysis (Bull, 2002). In Communication under the microscope: The theory and practice of microanalysis, Bull defines this methodology as a distinctive approach to communication via the detailed analysis of audio and video recordings. Furthermore, this microanalytic approach has enabled discoveries in the field of communication research that, otherwise, would not have been possible.

Bull (2002) attributes the development of the microanalytic approach to three major sources of influence: psychiatry (e.g., Sullivan, 1953), information theory and cybernetics (e.g., Ruesch & Bateson, 1951), and structural linguistics (e.g., Trager, 1958). Bull further acknowledges the contributions of a range of theoretical and methodological approaches towards the development of microanalysis. Each of these is discussed briefly below.

The structural approach to studying communication, both verbal and nonverbal (e.g., Scheflen, 1966), considers interaction as highly organised in terms of hierarchy and sequence, which operates within a strict set of social rules. Following its emergence as an approach for psychologists to study communication, it became an alternative to the then prevalent external variable approach (Duncan, 1969).

External variable studies focused on associations between nonverbal behaviour and other variables (e.g., personality). It was the structural approach, and the understanding that structure and social context are key factors, which played a part in the development of microanalysis (Bull, 2002).

Conversation analysis (CA) has made a significant contribution towards the microanalytic approach. CA stems, principally, from the work of Sacks in the 1960s (Sacks, 1992) and the recognition that conversation, further to its role in the study of other processes, could be the focus of study itself. CA involves the use of finely

detailed transcriptions of naturally-occurring conversations. Transcripts show the content of a conversation and, via detailed notation, highlight the way it was delivered. Bull (2002) recommends that transcripts are analysed, where possible, with video; thereby, certain nonverbal behaviours which are essential to the interaction are less likely to be overlooked. Noticeably however, conversation analysts (e.g., ten Have, 1990) have pointed out that the CA framework can readily incorporate nonverbal phenomena – for example, gaze direction (e.g., Kendrick &

Holler, 2017).

Speech Act Theory (Austin, 1962) is based on the premise that language may be considered a form of action. For example, a bride or bridegroom saying “I do” at a wedding is actually performing an action, rather than merely making a statement.

The theory, according to Bull (2002), does not merely distinguish between utterances that perform and those that describe; its basic principle is that every utterance does both. Namely, they have both meaning and force. Furthermore, there can be a third aspect to an utterance: as a consequence of its meaning and force, it may have an effect.

Discourse analysis (DA) is acknowledged as an approach which has been influential on the development of microanalysis (Bull, 2002). Originating from a broad range of disciplines, it has become an established form of analysis in many others in the areas of social science and humanities. Within DA, the term discourse can relate to all manner of spoken interaction, both formal and informal, as well as all forms of written text. The DA banner encompasses a number of approaches to the analysis of talk and text. Prominent in DA is the work of Potter and Wetherell (e.g., 1987). They regard language as a form of action, and that an individual’s use of language varies in relation to its function, although not necessarily deliberately or consciously. Bull (2002) cites the example of how someone might describe an acquaintance: the emphasis of personal characteristics may be entirely different when conversing with a close friend than when addressing a parent. These alternative accounts need not differ in accuracy, but may well serve different functions.

Ethology emerged from zoology, and its original focus was the study of the behaviour of animals in their natural environment. The ethological approach (e.g., Darwin, 1872) went on to encompass the study of human behaviour. The tenet of ethology is that naturally occurring communication can be understood in terms of evolution. The study of nonverbal behaviours in the communication of emotion have been of particular interest to social psychology. Indeed, Darwin’s proposals, for example, how facial expressions evolved as a means to convey information essential to human survival remain highly influential (Bull, 2002).

The social psychology approach which regards communication as a skill (Argyle & Kendon, 1967) has had a significant influence on the development of microanalysis. Argyle and Kendon proposed that social interaction can be highly skilled and organised, and as such is comparable to certain motor skills, for example, driving a car. Their proposals developed into the social skills model of social interaction (Argyle, 1976), which involves six processes, and which was illustrated in diagrammatic form, as shown in Figure 2.1. The underlying assumption from their original proposals was, if communication is indeed a skill, then interactional expertise may be acquired through training.

perception feedback

loop

↓

motivation goal

→

↓

motor responses

Figure 2.1. The social skills model of interaction (Argyle, 1976).

The above theoretical and methodological approaches have, to varying degrees, been influential in the development of microanalysis. Unsurprisingly, there are elements of the foregoing approaches that feature in microanalysis which have been subject to criticism (Bull, 2002). Microanalytic techniques include coding systems based on categorisation. Such methods can be used to facilitate quantification, and thereby the potential for inferential analysis. Critics of these procedures include Psathas (1995), who suggested that the reliance of preconceived categories, which tend to be arbitrary and reductionist, lead to data distortion. Bull defends categorisation as a valuable complement to communication research.

Carefully considered coding systems can be very informative, and can be adapted accordingly to be highly representative of interactional phenomena. They can reveal patterns of behaviour that may otherwise go unnoticed.

One example of a highly effective coding system is the Facial Action Coding System (FACS) devised by Ekman and Friesen (1978). The FACS describes in detail the entire range of observable facial muscle movements. It is a comprehensive system used to measure facial expressions. The FACS assigned a number to each movement, known as an action unit (AU), including a description and the associated facial muscle (e.g., AU23 - Lip tightener - Orbicularis oris). Since its development 40 years ago, it has been used extensively. The FACS has been revised and updated (Ekman, Friesen,

& Hager, 2002), and is still used widely today.

Some of the studies in this thesis use coding systems. These include some which are well established (e.g., Bull, 1994, 2003a; John, Bertelli, Jennings, & Bevan, 2013) and some which were designed specifically to address the research aims of the chapter [e.g., the personal attack coding system in chapter 5 (Waddle, Bull, &

Böhnke, 2018)]. Furthermore, as a direct consequence of some findings herein, proposals are made for revisions to existing coding systems (e.g., Bull, 2003a; Bull &

Mayer, 1993). The methods used throughout this thesis follow the microanalytic tradition (Bull, 2002), updated accordingly in view of the widespread availability of contemporary media. Qualitative analysis features in the studies of chapters 3, 4, 5, and 6, complemented by quantitative analysis in chapters 4, 5, and 6. Descriptions of

the respective means of analysis are detailed in the Method sections of each of these chapters. An overview of the empirical chapters and the thesis overall is provided in the following section.