As the main objective of language learning is communication, CMW acquisition is not only a case of lexicon acquisition but also the acquisition of the usages and functions of different CMW. This section explores the main usages of CMW, including CMW repetitions and the literary usages of CMW to facilitate the analysis of application of CMW usages of L2 learners in Chapter 5 and Chapter 6.
2.1.3.1 CMW Repetition
Repetition is an important usage of CMW, which can express additional meanings of a single measure word. This section provides an overview of some studies on CMW repetition to support the discussion of the current research.
Xiong and Kang (2009) have summarised that the measure words repetitions are restricted by many conditions. First of all, only monosyllabic CMW can be repeated, except some temporary nominal measure words, such as 一脸汗水 [(yīliǎnhànshuǐ) sweaty face] that cannot be transferred into *一脸脸汗 (yīliǎnliǎnhàn) as 脸 (liǎn) is not monosyllabic. Secondly, CMW that are derogatory cannot be repeated, such as 一 帮 流 氓 [(yībāngliúmáng) a group of gangs] and 一伙强盗 [(yīhuǒqiángdào) a gang of robbers]. In the same study, Xiong and Kang have also summarised that CMW repetitions mean ‘every’ and ‘each one’ (他讲的话句句真理。[(Tā jiǎng de huà jùjù zhēnlǐ.) Everything he says is the truth]), or ‘large quantity’ (桌上
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摆着一本本书。[(Zhuōshàng bǎizhe yīběnběnshū.) There are lots of books on the desk.]). Furthermore, CMW repetition can only be used with numeral ‘one’ (一把把椅子 [(yībǎbǎ yǐzi) lots of chairs]) and cannot be used as complements in a sentence (*鸡比鸭多五只只。(jī bǐ yā duō wǔzhīzhī)).
Liu (2009) has studied the unbalance of the CMW repetition on the basis of the CCL (Centre for Chinese Linguistics Corpus Database). According to her study, most of the CMW can be overlapped with some exceptions under each CMW category. Some CMW repetition appear more often than others, such as ‘个 (gè)、家 (jiā)、本 (běn)’ have over 1000 sentences in CCL, whereas ‘尊 (zūn) and 位 (wèi)’ have less than 50 sentences.
He (2000) has also included one chapter in her Modern Chinese Measure
Words Studies to discuss the relationship between measure word repetition
and its additional meanings. She has analysed CMW repetition syntactically according to the sentence elements the overlapped measure word serve i.e. subject, predicate, object, attributive and adverbial:
1. When a CMW repetition serves as a subject in a sentence and it describes the characteristics of the noun, this CMW repetition transforms the sentence into a literary style, such as 谁知盘中餐，粒 粒皆辛苦。 [(Shuí zhī pánzhōngcān, lìlì jiē xīnkǔ). Do you know all the food on the plate came from peasants’ hard work]. The measure words that express a small quantity or size overlap to indicate an emotion of cherishing, such as 针针有情 [(zhēnzhēn yǒuqíng) do every stitch with love].
2. When a CMW repetition acts as a predicate in a sentence, the sentence transforms into literary style, such as 秋风阵阵，湖水荡漾。
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[(qiūfēng zhènzhèn, húshuǐ dàngyàng.) Autumn winds create gentle waves in the lake.]
3. When a CMW repetition functions as an object in a sentence, it changes the meaning of the sentence to emphasise the ‘large quantity’ of the noun measured, such as:
◦ 建起楼房座座 [(jiànqǐ lóufáng zuòzuò) built lots of multi-storey buildings]
◦ 家家户户挂起了红灯笼 [(jiājiāhùhù guà qǐle hóng dēnglóng) lots of families hang up red Chinese lanterns].
4. When a CMW repetition operates as an attributive in a sentence, it transforms the sentence into a literary style, providing the measure word is metaphorical or descriptive, for instance:
◦ 蓝 天 飘 过 朵 朵 白 云 [(lántiān piāoguò duǒduǒ báiyún) many clouds drift in the blue sky]
◦ 阵阵微风吹过 [(zhènzhèn wēifēng chuīguò) the breeze blowing] If the measure word measures individual nouns and conveys some characteristics of the word measured, the CMW repetition changes the meaning of the sentence to emphasise ‘each of the noun measured’, such as 杯 杯 的 酒 装 着 人 们 的 喜 悦 [(bēibēi de jiǔ zhuāngzhe rénmen de xǐyuè) each glass of wine filled with the joy of the people.].
5. When a CMW repetition performs as an adverbial in a sentence, it transforms the sentence into a literary style, providing the measure word expresses the characteristics of the word measured, such as:
这 些 树 将 一 片 荷 塘 重 重 围 住 [(zhèxiēshù jiāng yīpiànhétáng chóngchóng wéizhù) around the pound, far and near, low and high, are trees]
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Verbal measure words repetition changes the meaning of the sentence to emphasise ‘each time’, such as 他回回都撒谎 [(tā huíhui dōu sāhuǎng) he lies every time].
2.1.3.2 CMW in Literary Context
Many literary usages of CMW are in a metaphorical sentence or have metaphorical indication: CMW in a metaphorical sentence is not necessarily implying the metaphorical usage, while the metaphorical usages of CMW are not necessarily in a metaphoric sentence. The flowing sentences illustrate what the differences are:
我看见一轮明月。 [ 1] Wǒ kànjiàn yīlún míngyuè.
*I see a CMW (wheel like) moon. I see a full moon.
树色是阴阴的，乍看像一团烟雾。 [ 2]
Shùsè shì yīnyīn de, zhàkàn xiàng yītuán yānwù.
*Tree colour is fading, at first glance it looks like CMW (a cloud of) smoke. The tree is fading, which looks like a cloud of smoke at first glance.
衬着蓝色的天幕，又飘来一抹晚霞。 [ 3]
Chènzhe lánsè de tiānmù, yòu piāolái yīmǒ wǎnxiá.
*In the blue sky, again flows a CMW (a wisp of) cloud that has dyed by the sunset.
A wisp of cloud that is dyed by the sunset flows towards here in the blue sky.
一盏宫灯似的太阳，挂在京西暮霭缠绕的峰峦上。 [ 4]
Yīzhǎn gōngdēng sìde tàiyáng, guàzài jīngxī mùǎichánrào de fēngluán shàng.
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*A CMW (measure word for lantern or light) palace lantern like sun, hang at Beijing west evening mist surrounded mountaintop.
A sun that looks like a palace lantern, hanging over the mountain top which are surrounded by evening mist at west Beijing.
All the CMW in the above listed sentences are in the literary context. Among them, [1] is not a metaphorical sentence, but the measure word ‘轮 (lún)’ is metaphorical. 轮 (lún) means wheel, but has been used to describe the shape of the moon which is ‘looks like a wheel’ in the sentence. Both the sentence and the measure word in [2] are metaphorical usages as the smoke is used to represent the tree, while the CMW ‘团 (tuán)’ represents the shape of the smoke which ‘looks round’. The CMW in [3] presents a clear picture of the shape of the cloud in the blue sky, which is ‘抹 [(mǒ) thin, narrow and faded]’. [4] is a metaphorical sentence, but the CMW in this sentence is not a metaphorical usage. Although the sun is the subject in [4], the CMW ‘盏 [(zhǎn) measure word for lanterns]’ is related to the palace lantern which represents the sun.