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Morris (1979) provided a review of fact mnemonic systems. It is interesting to note that three of the systems he described (including the

method of loci previously described here) require explicit, prior 'construction' of structures in long-term memory for information to be remembered. Like SF's recoding of numerical digits into running times and ages, these methods make explicit use of associations in long-term memory.

The phonetic translation system is used to remember numbers. It works by linking particular consonant sounds with each digit from 0 to 9. Thus l=t or d, 2=n, 3=m, 4=r, 5=1, 6=j or sh or ch, 7=k or g, 8=f or v, 9=b or p, and O=s or c or z. Numbers that need to be remembered are translated into meaningful words and/ or phrases by first converting the digits into their appropriate consonant sounds, and then inserting vowel sounds that would enable the construction of meaningful words. The example Morris (1979) gave was that of having to remember someone's extension number: 4180 could be translated to "ReD FaCe."

As Morris (1979) pointed out, in most cases there are structural similarities or phonetic/semantic associations between the digits and their respective sounds. For example, t which corresponds to 1 has one downstroke, n(2) has two, and m(3) has three; s which corresponds to 0 represents the s/z sound of the word zero; and 1 which corresponds to 5 is the Roman numeral for 50 (L). However, the important point here is that the digit-sound associations have to be learnt and memorised first (committed into long-term memory) before a person can use the translation system and translate numbers into words and/or phrases that they would remember better.

Similarly, an ordered sequence of peg words have to be constructed and memorised prior to using peg mnemonics. Peg mnemonics are mnemonic devices that can enable recall - in the right sequence if desired - of unrelated concrete items, such as a shopping list. The most commonly known and used peg mnemonic is the rhyme "one is a bun, two is a shoe, three is a tree, four is a door, five is a hive, six is sticks,

seven is heaven, eight is a gate, nine is wine, and ten is a hen." The words bun, shoe, tree, and so on constitute the peg words. If the rhyme has been memorised, it can be used to retain a list of ten items by creating images that link the items to the peg words. For example, if a list starting with onion, carrot, and bread has to be remembered, a link would first be made between onion and bun (the first peg word) by creating a mental image such as that of an onion on top of a bun. Similarly, mental images would be created that would link carrot to shoe (e.g., a carrot inside a shoe), and bread to tree (e.g., slices of bread hanging from a tree). Later retrieval of the items on the list would require recitation of the rhyme to remember the peg words and the images that have been created that incorporates the items on the list. Morris (1979) pointed out that obviously the rhyme, the way it is, is limited to retention of only ten items since there are only ten peg words. However, if more than ten items need to be remembered, a virtually unlimited number of peg words can be created using the phonetic translation system. For example, for 20, 21, and 22, "nose," "net," and "nun" could be used.

Other fact mnemonic devices, described by Morris (1979), do not require prior construction and memorisation of loci, translation systems, or peg words. However, they still draw from, or tap into, information stored i n long-term memory to enable the retention of the target items or information. For example, there is the link method, where images are formed to link each item with the preceding and subsequent item. And there is the use of stories and associations, where stories or sentences are composed to link the items together. In both, the images and stories constructed are based on one's prior knowledge, information contained in long-term memory, and/or interest. Thus, just as SF (described by Ericsson et al., 1980) could conceivably have used weights or any other system instead of running times to recode digits, there would be extensive variations between individuals with regard to images and sentences constructed when using the link method or stories and associations. For example, if the items to be remembered were car, table, tower, and

window, an image could be composed about a car carrying a table on its roof rack that parks outside a tower with stained-glass windows. Or, if the mnemonist had a slightly more violent and morbid imagination, it could be about a car that is driving so fast it smashes into a table that is located outside a gothic-looking, run-down tower with broken windows.

There are two features of mnemonic use that are important to note here. First, mnemonics enable the memorisation of semantic-based information even if the information is not clearly understood. And second, they make possible the retention of much more information than otherwise possible using more 'natural' methods (such as rehearsal) . The Hebrew prayer and much of what S read did not make much sense to him; the numbers that SF retained were not in themselves meaningful; and numbers recoded using the phonetic translation system and lists encoded using peg mnemonics are usually devoid of inherent meaning. Rehearsal alone would not have enabled SF to remember up to 79 digits; many of S's memory feats would have been impossible using normal techniques for remembering; and similarly, the amount of information that often can be retained using various mnemonic techniques is certainly greater than can be expected by employing 'natural' methods.

Another important point (noted earlier) is that mnemonics tap into information, knowledge, and even personal preferences stored in long­ term memory. This linkage to stored information can be explicit as when 'structures' are deliberately constructed in long-term memory and used for the specific purpose of remembering certain facts (e.g., when using the method of loci, the phonetic translation system, and peg mnemonics). Or

it can be incidental (e.g., when using the link method, or stories and associations). In essence, mnemonics provide a means for ordering, enhancing salience, and - to some extent - personalising target information. When viewed this way, they can be seen to function i n much the same way as effective study techniques, such as paraphrasing and elaboration (e.g., see Buzan, 1995; Hookham, 1995; Novak & Gowin,

1984). They enable the individual to 'own' the target information that h e or she i s trying to memorise, hence making the information more likely to be retained and accessible in memory. The obvious difference lies i n the kinds o f target information they normally deal with: while study techniques are usually applied to meaningful material, the sequence of facts memorised using mnemonics are often devoid of inherent meaning.