EL CENTRO DE INFORMACIÓN PARA LA MEMORIA COLECTIVA Y LOS DERECHOS HUMANOS

Ingredient Formulation 1 (%) Formulation 2 (%)

Pork (90% lean meat content) 54.30 54.30

Pork (42% lean meat content) 12.50 12.50

Beef (50% lean meat content) 14.00 14.00

Textured soy protein concentrate 5.00 0.00

Textured isolated soy protein granule 0.00 15.00

Water (for textured soy protein concentrate hydration) 10.00 0.00

Salt 3.20 3.20

Paprika 0.24 0.24

Dextrose 0.24 0.24

Cure salt (6.25% nitrite) 0.20 0.20

Red pepper 0.12 0.12

Allspice 0.12 0.12

Anise seed 0.06 0.06

Garlic powder 0.02 0.02

Total 100.00 100.00

Note: Traditional pepperoni contains 30 to 35% fat prior to drying. This reduced-fat pep- peroni example contains 17.7% fat prior to drying. Labeling a product “reduced fat” requires as a minimum 25% reduction of fat content.

180 Soy Applications in Food 70 and 90°F (21 and 32°C) and 90 and 110°F (32 and 43°C); selecting the fermentation temperature range is related to the bacterial starter culture incorporated into the meat mixture. Pepperoni is usually allowed to ferment until the meat pH is 4.8 or below. After fermentation, the raw sausages are heated and dried in accordance with validated cooking and drying condi- tions known to kill Escherichia coli. The combined cooking and drying pro- cesses should yield a product having a moisture-to-protein ratio of 1.6 to 1 or less. The previous processing description outlines procedures for product made in the United States; outside the United States, processing steps designed to kill pathogenic bacteria may not be considered mandatory.

Meat Analog Food Products

Meat analog products present a challenge regarding their formulation, as the meat products they emulate are extremely complex foods relative to both texture and flavor. Meat has very desirable yet critical flavor and texture attributes that must be duplicated in foods simulating meat products. Gener- ally, meat foods are not one dimensional; rather, they can be thought of as providing a complex sensory interaction involving layers of textures, flavors, and aromas. Therefore, rather involved or complex recipes comprised of tex- tured vegetable pieces, binding agents, fats and oils, and flavorings are required to form even marginally acceptable meat analog products. Ingredients that may be included in a given meat analog formulation must be consistent with the vegetarian population segment for which the meat analog product is

intended.An entire book chapter or more could be devoted to the formulation

and manufacture of meat analog products. Only a basic introduction to the formulation and preparation of meat analog products is provided here.

As mentioned previously, ingredient selection for meat analog products must be considered for various population segments. Vegetarians can be identified or classified as vegan, lacto–ovo, lacto, or ovo vegetarians. Vegan vegetarians do not consume foods containing any animal products; lacto–ovo vegetarians utilize both eggs and milk in their diets; and lacto and ovo vegetarians limit their inclusion of animal proteins to only milk and only eggs, respectively.

Many different vegetable and grain ingredients can be utilized as the primary ingredients or the bodies of the meat analog products; however, only a limited number of food ingredients work well as the binding material holding the various particulate ingredients together in a cohesive mass such as a vegetarian beef-flavored patty. Egg white remains the most common ingredient used to bind textured vegetable protein materials together to form vegetarian patties as well as vegetarian products that simulate whole-muscle foods such as meat chunks and roasts. Very low concentrations of dried egg white are required to hold blended food ingredients together. Dried egg

Textured Soy Protein Utilization in Meat and Meat Analog Products 181 white is used at between 1 and 2% of a meat analog formulation, while liquid egg white is used at between 10 and 20% of a meat analog. Egg white produces a firm irreversible gel when cooked. Vegetarian foods containing egg products are unacceptable to some vegetarians, so alternative binders are necessary. Specific methylcellulose products are ideal ingredients for use as binding material for meat analog products. Such ingredients not only provide excellent adhesion properties, holding the various textured vegeta- ble proteins together in a bound mass, but also provide lubricity during mastication as characterized by fat. Moreover, methylcellulose gels are reversible, becoming firmer with heating and softer when cooled; these unique gelling properties are the opposite of almost all other gelling mate- rials used in foods. For example, starch gels are reversible gels that can become quite fluid when warmed. Similarly, carrageenan and guar gum gels, though quite firm at refrigeration and room temperatures, become quite soft and less viscous when heated. Foods served cold (room temperature or less) may contain carrageen and or starch as the primary binding material holding other gelled ingredients or textured vegetable protein ingredients together. Products served hot require either egg white or methylcellulose for binding particulate ingredients together. All methylcellulose ingredients are not acceptable for use as a binding agent to meat analog products. The methyl- cellulose products selected for use in meat analog formulations should be quite viscous at relatively low concentrations.

The various textured soy protein materials discussed earlier in this chapter are excellent particulate materials for inclusion in meat analog formulations. Additionally, textured wheat protein products as well as vital wheat gluten and highly functional isolated soy protein powders are common meat analog ingredients. Wheat gluten and isolated soy protein can be counted on to bind ingredients together; however, products that are required to be firm or hard when consumed warm almost always contain egg white or methylcellulose. The formulation of meat analog products is quite different from that of meat products. Meat inherently possesses highly desirable textures, flavor, and eating enjoyment. The base or predominate ingredients of meat analog products are usually textured vegetable protein products having only mild flavor (in some cases, flavor that must be masked) and water. Distinct meat- like flavors and the qualities of animal fat must be built into analog products. Flavoring meat analog products is an art. Sufficient flavor must be added to mask soy flavors (e.g., bean, cereal). Additionally, specific flavor top notes must be developed so as to emulate flavors of specific meat products. And, finally, the umami flavor characteristics should be enhanced through the addition of glutamate and nucleotides. Excellent natural and artificial meat- like flavors developed to taste like beef, pork, bacon, chicken, etc. have been formulated by various flavor manufactures. Typical flavoring use levels range between 1 and 5% of the total product formulation, and a mixture of two or more flavors is usually necessary to impart the desired flavor profile. Additionally, salt is an extremely critical ingredient that is required to carry more of the overall flavor impact than required for meat products.

182 Soy Applications in Food

Meat Analog Product Formulations

Preparation Procedure for Vegetarian Patty Nugget

Table 9.15 provides a formulation for a chicken-flavored vegetarian patty or patty nugget. Place two thirds of the formulation water, textured wheat protein, and methylcellulose in a paddle blender and blend using a paddle rotation speed of 12 to 25 revolutions per minute (rpm) until the textured wheat pieces begin to form defined, almost elastic shreds. Add textured soy protein to the blended mixture and continue blending until the textured soy protein has been partially hydrated; this should take roughly 5 minutes. Add the vital wheat gluten and blend until the powdered gluten begins to form strands. Addition of a portion of the remaining third of the formulation water may be necessary to hydrate the powdered wheat gluten to the desired degree. It is important to save some of the water to be added last. Add the isolated soy protein and blend for several minutes for partial hydration of the isolated soy protein; again, the addition of some of the remaining water may be necessary. Add remaining ingredients with the exception of the remaining water and blend to allow uniform distribution of all ingredients. The mixture may or may not have a uniform firm texture at this point. Add remaining water and blend to allow hydration of the various protein ingre- dients. If the mixture appears not to have taken up all the oil or the mixture possesses a firm cohesive texture, additional water usually provides suffi- cient hydration of the ingredients to allow coating of the vegetable oil as well as additional mixture viscosity. Carbon dioxide snow may be required to firm the mixture for forming. Formed nuggets can be cooked in a contin- uous oven or battered and breaded, par-fried, and oven-baked as described previously.

TABLE 9.15

Chicken-Flavored Vegetarian Patty Nugget

Ingredient

Content (%)

Water 66.00

Textured wheat protein (strands, shreds, or fibers of wheat protein) 6.75 Textured soy protein concentrate (1/8-in. [3-mm] diameter flake) 6.50 Textured soy protein concentrate (1/4-in. [6-mm] diameter flake) 5.00

Vegetable oil or shortening (soy, canola, etc.) 5.00

Vital wheat gluten 4.00

Natural or artificial flavoring 4.00

Isolated soy protein 1.00

Methylcellulose (high viscosity) 1.00

Salt 0.40

Ground celery seed 0.15

White pepper 0.15

Garlic powder 0.05

Total 100.00

Textured Soy Protein Utilization in Meat and Meat Analog Products 183

Preparation Procedure for Vegetarian Chili

Table 9.16 provides a vegetarian chili formulation. Combine water, textured soy protein concentrate, and minced dried onions in a jacketed steam kettle and slowly stir while heating for the purpose of hydrating the textured protein material. Add remaining ingredients and cook, stirring continuously, to meld the flavor contributions of the various ingredients. Cook ingredient mixture until the desired viscosity has been achieved. It may be necessary to add water before the completion of cooking. Generally, between 8 and 15% of the water is lost due to evaporation during cooking of kettle-cooked foods. Package, chill, and freeze chili food material.

Summary

Textured soy protein materials are extremely versatile food ingredients due to their unique meat-like textures after hydration, bland flavor profiles, and amino acid composition that provides a quality of protein similar to that of meat, eggs, and milks. These attributes are responsible for their expanding acceptance as major ingredients in meat and meat analog products through- out the world. This chapter was intended as an introduction with regard to the use of textured soy proteins in foods. It should be noted that textured

TABLE 9.16