Herbart's contribution is so great that even to day he is rightly recognised as the chief protagonist of scientific tendency therefore, though his thoughts have been given in the last chapter, we hereunder discuss his life briefly and some aspects, related to this chapter, of his educational philosophy:
His Life Sketch
Herbart Spencer was born on 17th April 1820 in England in the famous town Derby. His early education was supervised by his uncle and not by his father. Hence, by his own efforts Spence gained a good knowledge of Arithmetic, Science and Economics etc. upto the age of seventeenth. Spencer was a thinker by nature.
He yearned to spread his ideology among the people. Hence, he began to contribute his articles to various magazines and selected the profession of a journalist for his livelihood. His early articles were published in a magazine known as Non-Conformist. Soon he became the Asstt. Editor of another magazine The Economists.
In 1850 he published his book "Social Statistics." By and by, he became a famous writer. He resigned his job as Asstt.
Editor, and then he wrote twenty books on Biology, Psychology, Sociology, and Ethics etc. Spencer had not gained much knowledge about education. But influenced by the education ideology of Pestalozzi, he wrote in 1861 his famous book Essays
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on Education. This book contains four articles about education. They are: (1) "What knowledge is of Most Worth." (2)
"Intellectual Education". (3) "Moral Education" and (4) "Physical Education."
In his article "What knowledge is of most Worth", Spencer has tried to prove that for a complete living, the study of scientific subjects is of much more value than mere academic subjects. In this way, while serving the cause of education for the benefit of the whole world, the great educationist died in 1903.
An Educator Before a Philosopher
Herbart was a skilled teacher as well as a profound philosopher. It was his problems pertaining to education that led to the formulation of his speculative theories. Thus like Plato, Herbart was an educator before he became a philosopher. Some of his chief educational writing are mentioned below:
1804—Aesthetic Presentation of the World as the Main Function of Education.
1804—Critical Point of the View of the Pestalozzian Method of Education.
1811—Several articles on psychology.
1818—Relation of School to Life.
1831—Letters on the Application of Psychology to Pedagogy, the Relationship of Idealism to Pedagogy, Encyclopaedia of Philosophy.
In 1809 Herbart was offered the most distinguished chair of philosophy in the University of Konigsburg, in East Prussia most distinguished because it had been occupied by the most famous philosopher sage, Immanuel Kant. In 1833 Herbart came back to the University of Gottingen, where he died in 1841.
Educational Views of Spencer
Emphasising the need of science education, Spencer advocated this by education one should develop the capacity of self-defence, earning of livelihood, upbringing his family, understand the social and political relationships and use of leisure time so that he is able to lead his life happily contributing his best to social welfare also.
On this basis he criticized (a) The prevalent education to his time, (b) Emphasised the education of science and 258
(c) Classified human activities into five categories for a complete living and laid stress on the study of those subjects which are related of these five categories.
(a) Criticism of Literary Education. Herbart Spencer was deadly opposed to the prevalent literary education. He has stated in his book "Essays on Education"—"Our system of education is so corrupt that the haste of getting a flower, it does not care the least about the plant is so bad that it does not give the individual any knowledge about the capacity of self-preservation. It gives only a smattering of that knowledge which equips an individual for earning a livelihood... art of conversation and harmonious living. Music and other fine arts which we consider as the very valuable points of our civilization are really of a lower value as the fundamentals of reformed and effective education."
(b) Emphasis on Science Education. Spencer emphasised that prominent position should be assigned to scientific subjects in the curriculum. He enumerated various advantages of scientific education as for example—(1) Scientic knowledge is more useful than mere bookish knowledge, (2) Thinking and memorizing faculties get developed, (3) principles are formulated, (4) Self reliance and self confidence are promoted, (5) Love for truth is stimulated, (6) Faith in the inherent unity of all things gets developed, (7) Faith in Nature is developed, (8) Development of morality takes place, (9) Spirit of dynamics is stimulated and vocational capacity grows.
(c) Five Types of Activities for Complete Living. Condemning the prevalent academic education, Spencer advocated the adoption of scientific education to instil in the children self-confidence and self reliance to achieve complete living through five types of activities which are given below:
(1) Those Which Directly Minister of Self Preservation. Spencer advocated the teaching of all those subject which promote good health, immunity from diseases, capacity of self preservation and healthful living.
(2) Those Which Indirectly Minister of Self Preservation. For such activities, vocational, technical and industrial subjects
should be taught, so that children grow up as self reliant, active, responsible and dynamic citizens to promote both individual and social welfare.
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(3) Those Which Have for their End the Raring and Discipline of the Offsprings. Each individual should learn and know well as to how to rare and properly develop its offsprings according to their innate tendencies. The will lead to
propagation of the race. Physiology and Biological sciences impart this knowledge and psychology adds to it.
(4) Those Which are Involved in the Maintenance of Proper Social and Political Relations. Every individual should be taught about social and political relations for well-adjusted life. This knowledge should be imparted with History at the central position.
(5) Those Which Make up Leisure Life, Devoted to the Glorification of Tastes and Feelings. These activities concern the leisure time occupations. For this, children should be taught literature and artistic activities. Even for a good understanding of these subject study of scientific subjects is helpful as one cannot enjoy poetry fully well unless one understand the science of language.
Herbart's Theory of Ideas
Simply elements of consciousness are ideas. Similar, disparate and contrary—the three divisions. Similar ideas fuse together. Dissimilar ideas combine together in a distinguishable whole. The contrary ideas do not form any combination.
Theory of Apperception and Education. The accepting, rejecting or modifying of ideas in our mind is called apperception.
This theory very important of education. Instruction to the harmonised with the already existing ideas in the minds of the pupils. The matter for instruction must be connected with the previous knowledge of the students.
Absorption and assimilation the two mental processes. There should be a harmonious relation between the two.
Formal Steps of Herbart. Clearness, association, system and method—from these have come the five formal steps—
peparation, presentation, comparison and abstraction, generalization, and application. These only as an aid to instruction.
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Formal steps appropriate to the teaching of normal subjects. In process subjects formal steps not applicable. Sought to devise means and methods for a complete course of education.
Aim of Education According to Spencer
To Prepare the Individual for Complete Living. According to Herbart Spencer, education should achieve the goal of complete living and harmonious development of all aspects of personality so that a child is able to solve all the problems of life and lead a complete happy life.
Ethical pupils should possess strong moral character. An action virtuous, if it is in complete accord with the conscience.
Inner freedom is a virtue. Education for attaining this Inner Freedom. Aesthetic presentation of universe is the aim of education.
Morality subordinated to aesthetic judgment. Inner Freedom produces efficiency, good will and sense of equity.
Many sided Interests. Prejudices to be cast aside in order to be virtuous. For this the scope of education to be widened.
Wealth of ideas will be followed by many-sided interests which are sure to lead to virtues.
Co-relation of studies. The materials for instruction should be so arranged in an inter-related form as to enable the child to apperceive it completely. The subjects to be presented before the child in a connected form.
Interest and Education. The instruction to incite interest—a mental activity. Interest, desire and action make a complete circle. Interest is apperceptive. Instruction to secure this type of interest.
Will is product to active interest.
Herbart's Conception of Discipline. The Pupils not to be subservient to the teachers. Training, Instruction and Discipline—
the three essentials of education. Freedom required for the development of character. Discipline a necessary evil.
Herbart point's out three main striking differences in discipline and training. Discipline aims at correcting the immediate behaviour of the child in the class-room. Training aims at the formation of ultimate character. Discipline is only a temporary measure whereas training is continuous and its intentions may be realised long after the child is trained.
Herbart recognises the importance of discipline, but he does not want that it should always meddle and place an
obstruction in the self activity of the pupils. Herbart admits that some freedom is also required for the development of the pupils' character. Discipline is necessary but it is only a necessary evil—
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because its effect is negative and it mars self activity. On the other hand education is positive, progressive and purposive.
Therefore, Herbart recommends the use of disciplinary measures when they become unavoidable. But Herbart's conception of training is itself a form of discipline. Every teacher should endeavour to inculcate this form of discipline in his pupils.
Curriculum According to Spencer
As discussed above Herbart Spencer divided human activities into five categories and suggested that the following subjects should be included in the curriculum to suit the five types of activities:
(1) Those Which Directly Minister to Self preservation— (1) Physiology, (2) Hygiene, (3) Physics and (4) Chemistry.
(2) Those Which Indirectly Minister to Self preservation— (1) Math, (2) Biology, (3) Sociology, (4) Physics.
(3) Those Which Have for Their End The Raring and Discipline of Offsprings—(1) Physiology, (2) Domestic Science, and (3) Psychology.
(4) Those Which Are Involved in the Maintenance of Proper Social and Political Relations—(1) History, (2) Political Science, and (3) Economics.
(5) Those Which Make up Leisure Life, Devoted to the Glorification of Tastes and Feelings—(1) Art, (2) Music, and (3) Poetry.
Methods of Teaching According to Spencer
There is no originality in the educational principles of Spencer. The basis of his principles and ideology in psychological and shows the influence of Pestalozzi, Herbart and Froebel. Thus, Spencer emphasised that teaching methods should be based on the following principles:
1. From Known to Unknown, 2. From Simple to Complex, 3. From Definite to Indefinite, 4. From Concrete to Abstract, 5. From Direct to Indirect, 6. Follow Culture Epoch Theory, 7. Emphasis on Self Learning,
8. Methods of Teaching should be Interesting, and 9. From Empirical to Rational.
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All the above principles are based more or less on psychological tendency. Hence, a teacher should provide education to suit the mental make up and age of the child as well as his inherent tendencies. It should be remembered that Herbart Spencer, by his emphasis on "From empirical to rational," has made the methodology of teaching quite scientific.
Views of Spencer about Moral Education
According to Spencer a child is not morally developed since birth. In his opinion he possesses many devilish propensities in the beginning. To allow free expression to these evil tendencies will not be beneficial from the social point of view.
Hence, the primary task of education is to reform and sublimate these raw tendencies and thus develop the child morally.
Spencer has emphasised that a child learns many things by imitation only. Hence, parents and teachers should understand the nature of child and try to put before him high ideals of conduct and character, by their own example of thoughts and actions, so that he is able to learn moral qualities of goodness follow-feeling, co-operation, sympathy tolerance and sacrifice etc.
Views of Spencer About Physical Education
According to Spencer physical and mental development are intimately connected. Hence, together with mental
development, the child should be provided full opportunities for his physical development. He criticized the prevalent system of education which emphasised only mental development to the total neglect of body.
In his book "Western System of Education", he has written: "All people manage for the diet of their animals. They inspect and supervise their maintenance and healthy living. But what a pity is that those very people care little for the diet and health of their children." How strange it is?
Hence, emphasising upon an effective scheme of physical education, Spence has advocated the following principles for this purpose:
1. Children should be provided with health education.
2. Their clothes should be neat and clean.
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3. Ample opportunities for physical exercises should be provided.
4. There should be no scolding or pulling up when children eat their food.
5. Children should be provided with balanced diet.
6. There should be no uniformity in items of food, but variety.
Characteristics of Scientific Tendency
On the basis of educational philosophies of main advocates of scientific Tendency, particularly the views expressed on various aspects of education by Comenius and Herbart we can deduct that following are the main characteristics of Scientific tendency.
1. Opposition to Literary Education. Scientific tendency opposes literary education and propose practical and useful knowledge.
2. Importance of Science in Curriculum. Scientific tendency attaches special importance to scientific subjects in the curriculum. Its supporters hold the view that only after the study of scientific subjects, a man can lead a complete life.
3. Emphasis on Curriculum. This tendency lays more stress upon curriculum in preference to methods. Its protagonists believe that lack of proper curriculum spoils education, however, effective methods might be.
4. Freedom in the Selection of Subjects. This tendency advocates the provision of full freedom to the child in the selection of subjects for study.
5. Knowledge of Nature Through Science. This tendency emphasises that true and real knowledge of Nature can be gained only through the study of scientific subject.
6. Importance of Inductive Method. Scientific tendency advocates the use of inductive method in all educational procedures, processes and experiences.
7. Need of Love and sympathy. This tendency lays great emphasis on love, sympathy and helping attitude towards children while educating them.
8. Meaning of Liberal Education. The scientific tendency interprets education in a new sense. In the words of Munroe—
"Liberal education is that which is essential for vocation and citizenship and prepares the individual for various tasks and functions of life."
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9. Importance of Concrete and Direct Objects. According to this tendency only the concrete and direct objects are true.
Abstract, unseen and unknown objects are of no importance.
10. Development of Scientific Attitude. Modern life demands a scientific attitude towards life and society. Scientific tendency promotes this scientific attitude in child.
QUESTIONS FOR ANSWER
1. Define "Scientific Tendency" and write a note on its history of development.
2. Was Herbart Spencer justified to emphasise the importance of scientific subjects over academic subjects? Give your considered view in this regards.
3. How "Sense Realism" contributed to the development of scientific tendency in education? Write a brief note on the contributions of Mulcaster and Francis Bacon in this respect.
4. Write a brief note on Comenius' philosophy of education as a contributory factor in the development and shaping of scientific tendency in education.
5. "Even today Herbart Spencer is rightly recognised as the chief protagonists of scientific tendency in education." Do you agree with this observation or not? Give your considered view in this regard.
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