Cierre de Proyecto

2.2.1 Modelling and teaching an important human value

People all need to feel cared for. Elias et al. (1997) and McCombs and Whisler (1997) suggest that we work better when we are part of a caring community.

Manaakitanga (nurturing relationships, looking after people, and being careful how

others are treated) is the foundation for all tikanga (Māori cultural practices) and is important for Māori no matter the circumstances (Macfarlane et al., 2008; Mead, 2003). Traditionally, high value is placed by Māori on manaakitanga and host groups go to great lengths to ensure their responsibility of manaakitanga is met. There are implications of such beliefs for New Zealand classrooms; students and families rich in tikanga Māori are likely to hold this view of caring behaviour and may expect consistency with these views in teacher practice. Those who do not experience such care may feel offence and alienation.

Care for others is similarly important to Pasifika groups. As an example of Pasifika perspectives, Tongan cultural and social values such as “’ofa (love), faka’apa’apa (respect), fetokoni’aki (sharing) and foaki (giving)” govern individuals’ behaviours (Koloto, 2004, p. 62). Children are seen as gifts, blessings, and treasures from God; “the future of the family, church and nation” (p. 64). Care for children is seen as very important and is a shared responsibility across the extended family. The main

purpose in life is the holistic development of three aspects of the “tangata kakato” (the total person) (p. 61): “mo’ui fakasino” (physical well-being), “mo’ui faka’atamai” (intellectual well-being), and “mo’ui fakalaumalie” (spiritual well-being) (p. 62) illustrating the high level of importance in Tongan society of holistic care for others.

Peterson (1992) discusses the importance for their learning of students feeling they are part of a caring community, claiming “community in itself is more important to learning than any method or technique. When community exists, learning is strengthened” (p. 2). He goes on to state his belief that the care and interest of others “breathes purpose and life into learning. Learning is social” (p. 3). Gay (2000) agrees, claiming “teachers who genuinely care about students generate higher levels of all kinds of success than those who do not” (p. 47).

Hawk and Hill (2000) refer to learning as a complex process that necessitates addressing social as well as educational and administrative domains. Similarly, Noddings (1992) claims “schools cannot accomplish their academic goals without attending to the fundamental needs of students for continuity and care” (p. 36). The importance of establishing a positive sense of community within the wider school context is shared by many other authors who hold a common view that an emotional attachment between students and their teachers, peers, and school is crucial for academic success (e.g., Hawkins, Catalano, & Associates, 1992; Solomon, Watson, Battistich, Schaps, & Delucchi, 1992 as cited by Elias et al., 1997, p. 45).

Noddings (1992) believes that ways of caring for one another should be explicitly taught. She encourages the view that learning to live with others in the world, rather than improving achievement, should be the primary purpose for teaching care. Gay (2000) strongly advocates caring teacher-student relationships for effective learning and community cohesion, stating:

Caring is a value and moral imperative that moves “self determination into social responsibility and uses knowledge and strategic thinking to decide how to act in the best interests of others. Caring binds individuals to their society, to their communities, and to each other” (Webb, Wilson, Corbett, & Mordecai, 1993, pp. 33-34). (Gay, 2000, p. 45)

2.2.2 Impact of teacher care on learning and achievement

In describing expert teachers, Hattie (2003) highlights the role of teachers’ care of and commitment to students in showing high respect for them as learners and as people. Anthony and Walshaw (2007) found much research evidence indicating that an ‘ethic of care’ (including relationship and confidence building, valuing students’ contributions,

and teacher care for progress in students’ mathematical proficiency) is essential for diverse learners’ mathematics learning. They describe effective classrooms as those that engender a sense of belonging and mathematical purpose.

Haynes et al. (2003) explored the effect of students’ social and emotional development within learning in mathematics and science. They report on a series of experiments that gathered evidence of the impact of interventions on students’ social and emotional competence and associated links with mathematics and science performance. They found strong evidence of the importance of teacher- student relationships for learning mathematics:

The students’ relationship with the teacher is key. Much of the learning process involves social interaction. Students are motivated to learn (1) from teachers they respect and feel comfortable with, and (2) from competent teachers who effectively communicate their knowledge and enthusiasm about their subject matter. (p. x)

Haynes et al. (2003) discuss how addressing students’ social and emotional needs can help enhance both achievement motivation and academic outcomes. Principles that describe the links they found between social, emotional, and academic learning include:

Cognitive development is inextricably linked to social and emotional development.

Social and emotional learning facilitates academic learning and vice versa. Social, emotional, and contextual factors contribute significantly to children’s learning and achievement in math and science.

School climate and classroom climate contribute significantly to the development of positive attitudes and behaviors that result in strong mathematics learning and high mathematics achievement.

Effective math and science teaching and learning involve approaches that integrate strategies that help students make meaning of the processes and content of math and science by building bridges between the content of what is being taught and the life experiences of the students who are being taught. (pp. xiii, xiv)

Hattie’s landmark synthesis (2009) of over 800 meta-analyses relating to student achievement highlights the crucial role of teacher-student relationships and emphasises that “developing relationships requires skill by the teacher – such as the skills of listening, empathy, caring, and having positive regard for others” (p. 118). Many other authors also believe that caring teacher-student relationships lead to effective mathematics learning (e.g., Borton, Preston, & Bippert, 1996; Elias et al., 1997; Gay, 2000; Hill & Hawk, 2000; Hudley & Daoud, 2007; McGee & Penlington, 2001; Noblit, Rogers, & McCadden, 1995; Noddings, 1992; Peterson, 1992; Powell, 2000). Furthermore, many studies into teacher care are centred on teachers identified by their colleagues, principals, communities, or by researchers as excellent teachers (e.g.,

Mayer & Marland, 1997; Ramsay & Oliver, 1995), indicating an implicit assumption that excellence in teaching is inter-woven with caring teacher-student relationships.

2.2.3 Impact of teacher care on affect and engagement

Students who believe their teachers are caring and fair are more likely to have positive attitudes to learning, greater motivation to achieve, and increased engagement in learning tasks (Babad, 1996; Hudley & Daoud, 2007; Wigfield, Eccles, MacIver, Reuman, & Midgley, 1991; Wigfield & Harold, 1992). A longitudinal study of 248 students from Year 6 to Year 8 in the U.S.A. (Wentzel, 1997) found that students described effective teachers as having caring attitudes, shown by democratic interaction styles, individualised expectations and constructive feedback, and modelling a caring attitude towards their work. These behaviours helped the students feel valued and motivated to achieve social and academic outcomes (Wentzel, 1997).

Teven and McCroskey’s (1996) study included data from 235 students in Communication classes in one North American university. Similar to Wentzel’s (1997) findings, they found that students’ perceptions of teacher care were closely associated with students’ evaluations of the teachers, their dispositions towards the course content, and their perceptions of their cognitive learning. Teven and McCroskey (1996) postulate that it is not the teacher care itself that counts; rather it is the behaviour which leads to students’ perceptions of teacher care. They believe that teacher care will not be effective unless it is communicated to students in some way. Teven and McCroskey call for studies that will help identify specific teacher behaviours perceived by students to be caring.

Noblit et al. (1995) report on studies with two teachers (of Year 2 and Year 4 classes) and the positive effects caring relationships had on individual students’ academic achievement and social skills. The teachers in the study believed that without relationships with the teacher, students had little reason to commit to instructional activities. One student in their study said:

If a teacher doesn’t care about you, it affects your mind. You feel like you’re nobody, and it makes you want to drop out of school (Noblit et al., 1995, p. 683).

Students’ perceptions of teacher care are also known to enhance their feelings of self-esteem, school belonging, and positive affect to learning (Roeser & Eccles, 1998; Roeser, Midgely, & Urdan, 1996). Ocean (2005) interviewed twelve New Zealand women who had become disengaged with mathematical study during their time at secondary school. Ocean explored the effects of the absence of teacher care

in their mathematics learning and found that feeling uncared for contributed to students’ decisions to discontinue with mathematical study. Given the very small numbers of New Zealand mathematics and statistics teachers and academics who have Māori and/or Pasifika heritage, understanding the characteristics of teacher care most valued by these students is vital in endeavouring to ensure these students continue with mathematical and statistical study and potentially into careers that use mathematics and statistics.