Capítulo 4: Modelado del motor Sherco 250i-R
4.3 MODELO 1: motor modificado y modelado con cuatro válvulas
4.3.7 Cilindro (Cylinder)
Jazz is a big word. It has been called upon to cover a lot of ground. Depending on whom you ask, jazz is Louis Armstrong. Or jazz is Charlie Parker. Jazz is also Glenn Miller. Jazz is the Beatles.248 Jazz is a fragrance by Yves Saint Laurent, an
apartment complex in Bogota, and a car manufactured by Honda. I could fill a page with uses the noun ‘jazz’ has been employed to cover. In light of this,
definitions of jazz are understandably diverse and, depending on whom you ask, contested.249 Seeking or spelling out a comprehensive definition of jazz in the
context of this thesis would activate such a raft of issues that to adequately address them (if indeed that were possible) would require more words than I have available to me. Instead, I will draw four principles from Chapter One that I will use as a lens through which to view music that is generally accepted as belonging to the musical genre jazz. I make no claims about the
comprehensiveness of such an approach; my objective is to consider what creativity in jazz might be, and then to meditate upon whether – in light of the answers I propose to that question – such creativity might be fostered going forward.
The first principle that informs my methodological lens is the primacy of process over product.250 Contemplating creative work through examination of
its products is meaningful when exclusive definitions of creativity are invoked. However, for the purposes of this thesis I have engaged more inclusive
definitions of creativity, as proposed by Keith Negus and Michael Pickering.251
When applied to artistic endeavour, an inclusive definition implies the need to
248 The Boys and Girl from County Clare, 2003. Dir. John Irvin. 249 DeVeaux, ‘Constructing the Jazz Tradition’, 528-‐529.
250 Such a privileging of process does not represent a more ‘true’ picture of jazz, but rather casts
jazz in a light that allows us to see more clearly aspects of the music that are sometimes occluded. Jazz, like all music I expect, involves the interaction of processes and content (or musical materials). To say one is more important than the other fails to recognise their mutual dependence. I do not claim process is more important, but adopt a process focus because it affords a different view of the music from one that privileges content.
accept both ordinary and exceptional practice and requires that any analysis accommodate both, for the latter is only possible in the context of the former.252
Because the processes of both ordinary and exceptional creativity are alike, contemplation of those processes offers us an inclusive view of creativity that accommodates both the ordinary and the exceptional products that arise from them.253 This idea is powerfully reinforced when applied to the consideration of
creative work in group settings where improvisation is employed (i.e. the activity is not entirely scripted or planned, but has scope for the individuals within the group to exercise choices about their individual actions). In these instances (and all the jazz I consider in this thesis is included in this set) the outcome is an emergent product of the processes engaged, and as Keith Sawyer argues, can only be fully understood if the processes that gave rise to the
emergent are considered.254
There are three processes I draw from the creativity literature discussed in Chapter One as being centrally important to jazz as conceptualised in this thesis. These three processes form the remainder of my methodological lens. The first process I emphasise, related to Keith Negus and Michael Pickering’s definition of creativity as ‘communicated experience’, is the development and expression of an individual voice.255 As Negus and Pickering suggest,
communicating experience implies expression, and that expression involves a ‘particular style or manner that emerges as a defining aspect of creating or performing.’ Such expression may be related to ‘what is characteristic of particular individuals’ or emerges as ‘an aspect of collective identity.’256 I will
argue that expression in jazz is, ideally, both of these.
252 Negus and Pickering, ‘Creativity and musical experience’, 189.
253 Boden, ‘Creativity: How does it work?’ identifies two processes, one iterative and one
involving combinations. (240-‐243) These processes (which are not mutually exclusive) appear to be common to all creative activity. What differs most markedly is the degree to which the results of these processes are novel and creative (or communicate experience) on a case-‐by-‐case basis, rather than the mechanisms by which they are accomplished.
254 Sawyer, Group Creativity, 78.
255 Negus and Pickering, Creativity, Communication and Cultural Value, 37-‐38. 256 Ibid., 26.
The relationship between individual voices and collective identities may be theorised as a function of the second process I privilege: improvised
interactivity within group settings. As Keith Sawyer argues, group creativity (in verbal and musical contexts) is a ‘collaboratively emergent social process, and its analysis requires a focus on interaction, practice and pragmatics.’257
Furthermore, improvisation is a crucial aspect of collaborative work; for Sawyer, if a group is to be creative then the presence of improvisation is not in question, only the degree to which it is employed.258 Sawyer suggests that improvisation is
present in group creative activities on a continuum that ranges from (minimally improvised) ritualised genres to (maximally) improvisational genres.259 Among
musical performances commonly accepted as jazz (those one might find
captured on recordings in the CD store and filed under ‘Jazz’, for example) there are performances at all points along this continuum.
The third process I employ in order to view jazz through the lens of creative practice is the appropriation and transformation of received and newly discovered materials. Margaret Boden’s work both emphasises the centrality of this practice in accomplishing creative work, and provides a useful taxonomy for distinguishing amongst its various manifestations.260 In the framework I am
drawing here, these appropriations and transformations involve ‘a series of encounters between old and new cultural forms and practices, traditional and emergent ways of seeing, listening and thinking about the world.’261 These
encounters not only involve the old and the new, but also imply negotiations between the local and the global, a prospect that leads Keith Negus and Michael Pickering to suggest that, ‘creativity arises not from a cultural context which exists in monolithic isolation, but from cultural borrowings and transactions.’262
257 Sawyer, Group Creativity, 78.
258 Sawyer, Group Genius, 23-‐29. Here I employ a commonsense definition of improvisation:
‘making stuff up on a moment-‐to-‐moment basis’.
259 Sawyer, Group Creativity, 81.
260 Boden, ‘Creativity: How does it work?’ 240-‐243.
261 Negus and Pickering, Creativity, Communication and Cultural Value, 39. 262 Ibid., 40.
As will become clear, these practices have been evident in jazz across the entire history of the idiom.
Jazz is commonly associated with African American culture, and most histories of jazz make explicit links between African cultural retentions among African American communities in the United States and the musical practices that are central to jazz.263 I find the ideas these histories promulgate fascinating
and compelling, and the notion that jazz can be understood to be predicated upon principles of cultural production that are consistent with diasporic values that survived the Middle Passage is one I find persuasive.264 However, I am also
conscious of how problematic ideas about the African diaspora have become in recent years. Kofi Agawu’s critique of generalised ideas of Africa (the error of ‘the putative claim that African music constitutes a homogenous body of music’ for example) at the very least problematises claims about what African cultural retentions might actually look like in any one of the sites of the African
diaspora.265 My emphasis on creativity to a large extent glosses any significance
African cultural retentions may have in jazz. This is not to imply an
undervaluation or subordination of such influences but rather to underscore a dimension of the music that has itself been subordinated in current scholarship.
My examination of jazz will proceed by considering in turn each of the four lenses through which I am viewing the music. Each concept or process will initially be positioned relative to the cultural practices that scholars and
historians have identified as being consistently present in jazz, practices that have animated the music and made it distinguishable from other genres. I am
263 For example, see: Gioia, The History of Jazz; Mark Gridley, Jazz Styles (Harlow (UK): Pearson,
1994); Christopher Small, Music of the Common Tongue: Survival and celebration in Afro-‐
American Music (New York: Riverrun Press, 1987); Alyn Shipton, A New History of Jazz (London: Continuum, 2001); Eileen Southern, The Music of Black Americans (New York: W.H. Norton, 1983); Gunther Schuller, Early Jazz: Its roots and musical development (New York: Oxford, 1968).
264 In particular: Paul Gilroy, The Black Atlantic (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1993);
Ingrid Monson, Freedom Sounds: Civil Rights Call Out to Jazz and Africa (Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 2007, and especially 66-‐106); John S. Roberts, Black Music of Two Worlds (New York: William Morrow, 1972); Olly Wilson, ‘Black Music as an Art Form’, Black Music Research Journal 3 (1983), 1-‐22; and the contributors to The African Diaspora: A Musical Perspective (New York: Garland Publishing, 2000).
265 Kofi Agawu, ‘The Invention of “African Rhythm”’, Journal of the American Musicological Society
making use of these values because they offer a view of jazz that (although admittedly contingent) is valid – taking into account as it does core values of the music that have consistently characterised its production – and that brings some of the ways creativity has operated across the history of the music into sharper relief.