El marco general: territorio, población, instituciones
1. La ciudad de Barcelona
Eisner was also encouraging: 'It is surprising how much people are willing to say to those whom they believe are really willing to listen' (1991/1998, p. 183).
The authentic natural setting as mentioned above by Denzin and Lincoln (1994, p. 2) would, presumably, have been the classroom. However, although observation of the teachers in action was considered, it was considered inappropriate for several reasons. To begin with, this study was intended to be an investigation of teachers' espoused
theories in one school. An inquiry into the connection with their theories-in-action would be the next stage beyond this one and would not necessarily have produced data relevant to the research questions as conceived. Within the literature there are other studies into teachers' thinking that have not used any form of observation of practice, even in the relatively small field of music education (for example, Austin and Reinhardt, 1999; Barnes and Shinn-Taylor, 1988; BrandstrOm, 1999; Cox, 1999; Dolloff, 1999; Kelly, 1998; Knapp, 2000; and Teachout, 1997). None of these have exactly the same focus as my study, but there is some relevant overlap from each. Moreover, although Calderhead reports some studies have shown 'discrepancies between teachers' espoused beliefs and their observed classroom practices', others `have identified associations' (1996, p. 721). It was considered that the interview and concept map schedule planned (see below) would provide justifiable data for the research questions formulated.
There were also practical factors given that the time necessary to observe each teacher engaged in teaching music would have been beyond the scope of this one-person study, while reducing the number of teachers would have compromised the whole school view. Moreover, the Head and the three teachers involved in the initial consultation about the field study (see below) considered it was probable that most of the teachers would be
unlikely to permit observation, particularly as they had just undergone an Ofsted inspection. In retrospect, given that most of the teachers were heavily dependent on broadcasts to deliver their curriculum, there might, in any case, have been limits to the value of what I would have seen in this particular school. Furthermore, any specific observation within the school would only reflect one context for the teachers' musical engagement: the professional, while this study had an intentionally broader scope.
3: 4.1 Semi-structured interviews
The intentions underlying the use of interviews in this study reflected the assertion by Bresler and Stake that
Interviews are conducted ... primarily to obtain observations that the researcher is unable to make directly, secondly to capture multiple realities or perceptions of any given situation, and, finally, to assist in interpreting what is happening. (1992, p. 85)
Various authors have given advice about the most effective way to conduct an interview (for instance, Powney and Watts, 1987; Thompson, 1993; Dreyer, 1995). Powney and Watts (1987), for example, include practical points and examples about all stages of the process: preparation of an appropriate interview schedule, selecting and contacting the interviewees, carrying out the interview, recording it, transcribing, and analysing the data. They describe research interviews as 'conversational encounters to a purpose' (ibid. p. vii). For Woods (1986) they are 'often the only way of finding out what the perspectives of people are and collecting information on certain issues or events' (cited in Thompson, 1993, p. 84). One of the great advantages of interviews over questionnaires is that they allow for prompts and probes in order to extend the information given (Bresler and Stake, 1992; Thompson, 1993). This advantage not only allows for repetition and clarification, if necessary, but also accommodates aspects
beyond': listening for more than is being said on the surface' (1992, p. 214). Therefore, interviews were considered more appropriate than questionnaires, given the scope of this investigation, even though they have disadvantages relating to the time involved (for both interviewer and interviewee), the problems of recording, and the possible uneasiness of both parties (Verma and Mallick, 1999, pp. 122-129).
The objectives behind the first interview were to establish a relationship with the teacher concerned; obtain background information relating to that teacher; and discuss various aspects to do with music in education. A semi-structured approach was chosen in order to provide sufficient opportunity for freedom of response while following a prepared interview schedule that would allow for consistency over all the teachers (see 3: 7.1 and Appendix B). That first interview then provided the basis for the construction of a concept map by the teacher during the second session (see 3: 7.2 and Appendix C). The third interview was intended to allow for filling in any necessary gaps, as well as clarifying or extending any earlier issues (see 3: 7.3 and Appendix D). This type of evolution and interdependency within a study is supported by Eisner, who has described the development of a qualitative research study as 'contingent upon the features of a future no one can fully anticipate ... As in a good conversation, one listens to the other, and how, when, and what one says depends upon what the other has said' (1991/1998, p. 170).
Novak and Gowin were reassuring:
A perfect interview is not a realistic goal, for even interviews developed over years and used with hundreds of students still reveal less than a perfect picture of students' knowledge and thinking strategies. Human cognitive structures are so idiosyncratic that no one interview can reveal with perfect fidelity the cognitive frameworks of all students. (1984, p. 127).