- Cláusula de aplicación territorial

Over the years, many researchers working with adolescents relied heavily on Erikson‘s work to understand adolescent identity formation. James Marcia is a well-known researcher who empirically tested Erikson‘s theory to understand the relationship between exploration and commitment variables in the formation of ego identity. According to Erikson (1968) adopting various ideological values for oneself helps form one‘s ego identity. Marcia wanted to test how this kind of internalization and subscription to specific sets of values might work. Based on his research, Marcia (1966) developed what has become known as the identity-status model, in

which he identified four different statuses by means of which adolescents approach identity - defining roles and values. The four statuses include identity diffusion, identity moratorium, identity foreclosure, and identity achievement, and clearly build on the kinds of identity formation possibilities outlined by Erikson and discussed in the previous section. Each of these is briefly elaborated as follows:

2.3.1. Identity diffusion

Identity diffusion characterizes the early phases of adolescence where adolescents have not yet made a personal commitment to any set of beliefs. Adolescents who remain in the state of identity diffusion neither explore nor commit themselves to any identity. They quickly shift from one identity to another. Marcia argues that their lack of commitment to one identity impairs their ability to form close relationships. Such adolescents are often seen as confused and aloof. They also present with low levels of self-esteem and are easily influenced by peer pressures toward conformity (Kroger, 2006). While some degree of flexibility in identifications is normal or even positive in early adolescence, persistence of this pattern leads to this problematic ‗diffuse‘ identity.

2.2.2. Identity moratorium

Adolescents in this status also experience a crisis and have not yet made choices or personal commitment to any set of beliefs. However, they have explored and still are exploring various alternatives in an attempt to form an identity. This is what Erikson (1968) calls an ‗ideological mind‘, represented in adolescents who are always searching for answers. Parents find it difficult to understand teens during this phase. Adolescents usually defy their parents‘ authority to experiment with various identities. Adolescents in a state of moratorium spend a prolonged time testing and experimenting with identities, ideas and difficulties, but the expectation is that they will eventually develop a more stable identity.

2.3.3. Identity foreclosure

As discussed to some extent in the previous section, adolescents in this status have made a personal commitment to certain values and beliefs without properly exploring a variety of identities. Most often, these adolescents simply adopt the beliefs and wishes of their parents. Foreclosed adolescents are less likely to engage in risk-taking behaviours, but may also be more unthinking in their behaviour and attitudes (Kroger, 2006). Tom and Coetze (2004) argue this form of identity formation may be premature due to the fact that foreclosed adolescents are either not given freedom to develop their own identities or choose not to exercise this freedom. However, it is important to research on what psychological factors might be that influence foreclosed adolescents to settle on an identity without any experimentation.

2.3.4. Identity achievement

Adolescents in this status have explored different identities and have now made a commitment to a particular kind of identity. Commitment is achieved after a reasonably long period of exploration. This status marks the end of adolescence. Adolescents who have reached this status have generally been found to show personality features such as high levels of achievement, motivation and good self-esteem (Marcia, 1966).

It is clear that the four statuses in Marcia‘s theory constitute an extension of Erikson theory on the identity crisis process associated with identity formation. A study by Roker and Banks (1993) corroborated the existence of Marcia‗s identity statuses have found that adolescents enjoy experimenting with different identities during the phase of identity moratorium, including experimentation with a range of behaviours, such as engaging in forms of sexual contact and taking drugs and alcohol. According to this view, participation in some reckless activities may reflect the adolescent‘s search for a ‗real‘ identity. In many South African studies (Parry et al., 2004; Rocha-Silva, 1998) on substance abuse, adolescents reported curiosity as the main reason for initial experimentation. Conformity to peer group values is also closely linked with a desire to be accepted and liked. Seidler (2006) suggests it is particularly difficult for a teenager to resist any peer pressure since there is a desire to be seen as ‗cool‘ in the peer group. For many

adolescents, the phase of experimentation is temporary. While most adolescents outgrow this phase, others fail (Kroger, 2006). Some schools and home environments encourage adolescents to go and ‗find themselves‘ and to develop a congruent ‗self‘/ identity, which may help them not merely to conform to what their friends do, but rather to make choices from the position of a more coherent and recognized identity.

In their study, Roker and Banks (1993) also found that the frequency of Marcia‘s identity moratorium and diffusion statuses within an adolescent population differs in terms of the family context, political climate, peer relations, media exposure and educational experiences. Roker and Banks (1993) found, for example, that identity development is also influenced by the type of school that young adolescents attend. In private schools, young adolescents have role models in both their parents and teachers, unlike in the public schools, where learners from poor family backgrounds appeared to have poor role models in their families and communities. Also at these public schools, teachers appeared to be de-motivated to serve as positive role models for their pupils. Roker and Banks (1993) concluded that adolescents in private and public schools have different identity styles. Learners in private schools are career- orientated/driven and are less likely to engage in risk-taking behaviours as compared to learners in public schools who come from poverty-stricken homes, although this finding has been contested by Barker (2005) and Jensen (2008). Both Barker and Jensen argue that some learners in poverty-stricken communities are concerned with schooling and academic achievement, since in this context, education is seen as the key to success and escaping current life circumstances. However, at many public schools, male learners are more likely to experiment with alcohol and drugs and also to be part of gangs. These activities are seen as key markers of successful masculinity outside the school environment (Barker, 2005). School may be experienced by these kinds of boys as emasculating, due to their poor academic performance. Their search for positive identities relies on risk-taking behaviours and the affirmation and approval that they get from their male peers and this may involve explicit disinvestment in scholarly activities and opposition towards authority figures. What this brief discussion of differences in patterns of identity formation between boys educated in ‗private‘ and ‗public‘ school environments reveals is that identity formation may be strongly influenced by context and opportunities, in this instance mediated largely by class positioning and access

to particular types of schooling. This finding has relevance for the current research project which aims to study aspects of adolescent masculinity within two schools based in a particular socio-economic context.

2.3.5. Critical evaluation of Marcia‟s perspective on adolescent identity formation

Several criticisms have been leveled against Marcia‘s identity-status approach. One of the criticisms is whether Marcia‗s identity-status approach sufficiently or accurately captures Erikson‗s theoretical conception of identity (Kroger, 2006). Criticisms have also been leveled against the psychometric instruments used to empirically test Erikson‘s theory using Marcia framework. Some of the instruments fail to address phenomenological dimensions of identity (Kroger, 2006). The instruments also fail to sufficiently consider how contextual factors influence identity formation. Marcia also tends to present identity statuses as rather static and stable. He fails to sufficiently take into account the likehood that adolescents continue to undergo changes, depending on the context in which they are in. The theory also does not say much about gender differences and gender formation in particular.

Many studies have been conducted to verify and explore Marcia‘s theorized identity development statuses. For example, a study by Lannegrand-Willems and Bosma (2006) found that adolescents did appear to fit Marcia‘s statuses in approaching identity issues during adolescence. However, other researchers are not convinced that all adolescents fit Marcia‘s statuses in identity development. As already mentioned, Marcia is also criticized for failing to explain individual differences in identity development that relate to demographic aspects of identity, for example, Lannegrand-Willems and Bosma (2006) found that identity status differed in terms of race, age, gender, class, and culture amongst Dutch and French adolescents.

In response to some of these criticisms, it is argued that at no time did Marcia claim that his identity-statuses comprehensively capture all of the dimensions that Erikson included in his theory (Kroger, 1996, 2006). Marcia only used Erikson‘s theory as a basis from which to explore adolescents‘ processes of exploration and commitment to various roles and values. His theory has expanded upon and enriched Erikson‘s theory in some respects, and his theory has

also given rise to many scientific studies. Despite some of the criticisms, Marcia‘s theory still remains one of the useful tools in studies of adolescence.