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“Human factors such as beliefs have a significant influence on teacher behaviours, and consequently their preparedness” (Gill & Dalgarno, 2008, p. 331). Therefore, we must explore what PSTs consider preparedness to mean as understandings of preparedness will influence one’s rating of how prepared and efficacious one feels. For example, Kraut’s (2013) investigation of how pre-service middle and secondary English teachers in the U.S. define preparedness to teach revealed that the phenomenon meant different things to different groups of PSTs. For some, feeling prepared to teach meant having appropriate knowledge and skills, being in possession of teaching strategies, tools and qualities, and/or having confidence in one’s ability to teach andbeing mentally prepared to teach. PSTs were also aware of the need to be able to deal with the political and administrative elements of teaching, and of being open to the potential of the collaborative nature of teaching (e.g., the development professional learning teams or simply the ability to get along well with colleagues in the staffroom).

While many studies claim that teachers’ beliefs about teaching and learning influence their instructional practices (Fives & Buehl, 2008; Grootenboer, 2008; Lavy & Shriki, 2008), fewer have considered teachers’ beliefs about the knowledge, skills, and attributes they need as part

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of their preparation for becoming a teacher (Buehl & Fives, 2009; Leong, 2012). Beginning teachers’ definitions/viewpoints of good teaching are highly likely to influence how they select and enact their methods of instruction and assessment practices (Chen & Brown, 2013; Mapolelo & Akinsola, 2015). However, some studies (e.g., McCoy, 2011; Stuart & Thurlow, 2000) report that PSTs portray, at least at the beginning of their teacher education, very narrow or simplified notions of what is needed to be a successful teacher, believing that teaching is merely a matter of transmitting knowledge and providing information. PSTs may also view knowledge as being absolute, and thus believe that their educators have all the answers, and that there is only ‘one right way’ to teach (McCoy, 2011).

In general, studies investigating the beliefs of PSTs have found that PSTs focus greatly on content knowledge, believing this to be most important component for effective teaching. For example, the beginning secondary mathematics teachers in Leong’s (2012) U.S. study considered content knowledge to be more important than the teacher’s personality in determining teacher quality, arguing that content knowledge was the best indicator of good mathematics teaching. Some participants explicitly linked content knowledge to feelings of confidence, arguing that being confident in mathematics helped them improve their lesson planning as they could concentrate on developing activities rather than re-learning the content to be taught. Other participants described how having strong content knowledge helped them explain concepts in a number of different ways and/or take a number of different approaches to problem solving. Similarly, Buehl and Fives (2009), again looking at the beliefs of American pre-service primary, middle, and secondary teachers, noted that content and pedagogical knowledge were identified as the two most important components for effective teaching.

However, in recent studies researchers have found that mathematics PSTs have a broader view of what it takes to be a successful teacher. For example, Dayal’s (2013) study of Pacific Island pre-service secondary mathematics teachers found that this group defined good mathematics teachers in a number of ways, including preparedness, resourcefulness, thorough content knowledge, ability to structure lessons well, and the ability to use a variety of teaching methods. Participants also listed personal characteristics such as a caring or nice nature, approachability, a willingness to give students extra help or counsel, punctuality, and a desire to help students achieve good marks. Balatti and Rigano’s (2011) study exploring PSTs’ perceptions of good mathematics teachers found that PSTs mentioned a range of personal characteristics such as the ability to relate to students, good organisational skills, and communication skills. Other

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attributes of good teachers listed by this study group included the ability to use creative and fun learning tasks, the ability to use real-life examples in teaching, and the ability to use student-centred teaching strategies. Likewise, an Australian study of secondary PSTs (Prescott & Cavanagh, 2006) cited both content and pedagogical factors (e.g., the ability to explain things clearly, the use of real-life examples, and the ability to maintain control within the classroom) as well as personal characteristics (e.g., enthusiasm and friendliness) as attributes of a good teacher. Interestingly, beginning secondary mathematics teachers in Leong’s (2012) study broadened the focus from lists of skills and capabilities to include an explicit reference to high expectations of students.

Studies based in non-Western contexts provide evidence of both commonalities with the above studies and indications of cultural specificity. Chen and Brown (2013) investigating good teaching as defined by Chinese PSTs found that although PSTs defined a good teacher as one who cares for students, care was explicitly defined in terms of student outcomes and thoroughness in preparing students for exams. This curriculum and outcome-focussed definition of good teaching contrasts with the more relational notions of care found in Western contexts (see Walshaw & Anthony, 2007). A cross-cultural study (Bryan et al., 2007) involving PSTs from Western nations (Australia and the U.S.) and Asian locations (Mainland China and Hong Kong SAR) found both differences and similarities between the Western and Eastern perceptions of ‘good teaching’. The Australian and U.S. teachers discussed teacher attributes such as enthusiasm and the ability to establish rapport with students, whereas the Asian teachers were more likely to discuss the ability to present clear explanations and to prepare and present lessons. Other interesting comparisons between and among the different cultures were also found that did not align to an East–West divide. Teachers from Australia, Mainland China, and Hong Kong considered sound content knowledge to be a vital characteristic of good teaching, whereas teachers from the U.S. made limited mention of this factor. Teachers from Mainland China were more likely to emphasise careful use of textbooks and anticipating possible areas that could confuse students. Teachers from the U.S. were much more likely to mention classroom management in their definition of good teaching than the other three groups. Despite these cultural differences, the study also revealed several characteristics that were considered to be hallmarks of good teaching in all four cultures, namely:

 the ability to communicate clearly and explain the topic and the goals of the lesson,  the ability to use a variety of teaching strategies, and

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 capturing students’ interest, especially by making mathematics relevant to the student’s daily lives and experiences.

Only one relevant study from Saudi Arabia was sourced concerning perceptions and definitions of effective teachers. Alqahtani et al. (2016), used a Likert-type scale to investigate female Saudi secondary mathematics and science teachers’ perceptions. Teachers’ responses included the following characteristics as being crucial for effective teachers:

 a caring nature (defined as demonstrating positive interpersonal behaviour)  fairness and respect for students;

 dedication to teaching

 able to interact well with students  enthusiasm and motivation  reflection and self-evaluation

 classroom management (including organisation of the room and disciplining students)  the ability to plan lessons well

 use of a variety of teaching strategies.

Differences in these study findings indicate the need for more research directed towards understanding PSTs’ beliefs about the importance of teacher knowledge alongside other attributes. Of interest is whether the definitions of good teaching given by PSTs in Saudi Arabia in this study are similar to those of PSTs in other non-Western nations, or are closer to their counterparts in Western nations. These understandings will further our understanding of what kinds of knowledge Saudi PSTs regard as important in order to be a well-prepared teacher.

Although educational standards authorities and teacher education institutions agree that teacher knowledge and classroom management are hallmarks of teacher quality, variance can arise as to how these are to be achieved and measured. Uncertainty can lead to problems for ITE in claiming assurances that their teachers are adequately prepared. As pointed out by Lerman (2006), “if teacher education is about preparing students to be as good teachers as they can be,

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it would be very useful to have a clear notion of what might be meant by good teaching” (p. 299).