Clasificación de los constituyentes

Habermas argues that in order to generate legitimate knowledge from social action and situations the researcher must understand and recognise the knowledge-constitutive interests of the participants (Habermas 1973), which can be technical, practical or emancipatory, which can be represented diagrammatically as follows:

Interest Knowledge Medium Science

Technical Instrumental

(Carr and Kemmis 1986, p.136) An examination of the key actors in the main case study (including the researcher) reveals their a priori motivations, leading to the genesis of the project, to be largely emancipatory. Habermas suggests that knowledge derived in such situations is a

Page 114 of 258 function of reflection and operates through the exercise of power. This indicates a critical social science approach is required.

It is important to distinguish between theory and practice – to distinguish between critical theory and critical social science. This is because critical theories can be criticized on the basis that while they transform ways of viewing the world, they do not change practice, and it was, and is, an intention of this project to transform practice within the BBC.

Habermas (1973) developed the concept of a critical social science to overcome this theoretical limitation. It is a social process combining critique with the determination to overcome apparent inequalities of social institutions and their actions. It requires the integration of theory and practice as in a dialectical process of reflection,

enlightenment and action – action which is emancipatory in nature and aimed at the improvement of the social and material conditions under which the practice takes place. In Habermas’s own words:

“The mediation of theory and praxis can only be clarified if to begin with we distinguish three functions, which are measured in terms of different criteria: the formation and extension of critical theorems, which can stand up to scientific discourse; the organization of processes of

enlightenment, in which such theorems are applied and can be tested in a unique manner by the initiation of processes of reflection carried on within certain groups toward which these processes have been directed;

and the selection of appropriate strategies, the solution of tactical

questions, and the conduct of political struggle. On the first level, the aim is true statements, on the second, authentic insights, and on the third, prudent decisions.” (Habermas 1973)

The human, social and political nature of critical social science’s process of reflection implies the participation of the researcher in the social action being studied, or rather that participants become researchers. Because “the

disinterested, ‘objective’ researcher of natural science and the empathetic observer of interpretive science may help in the organization of self-reflection, but they are

‘outsiders’ and, as such, they see only the exterior of the action, whether as a social system or as a re-enacted experience” (Carr & Kemmis 1986, p.149). Moreover, this is exactly what happened in the inception of this doctorate – the participant became a researcher – but remained on the inside, with visibility of the interior action.

We can now see how critical social science, meets Carr and Kemmis’ five criteria, which were introduced at the start of this section:

Page 115 of 258 Requirement How critical social science meets the

requirement Reject positivist notions

of rationality, objectivity and truth

Sees ‘truth’ as historically and socially embedded, not standing above the concerns of participants in real situations

Employ the interpretive categories of

practitioners

Depends upon the meanings and interpretations of practitioners, grounded in their authentic language and experience

Distinguish ideologically distorted interpretations from those that are not

Institutes critical processes of self-reflection whose purpose is to distinguish between distorted ideas and those that are not

Identify aspects of existing social order which frustrate pursuit of rational goals

Employs critique to expose aspects of the social order over which participants have no control and which prevent change

Recognise that educational theory is practical

Helps practitioners inform themselves about the actions they need to take to overcome their problems and eliminate their frustrations

9.4.3.2 ‘Critical Educational Science’

In developing their case for a critical educational science, Carr and Kemmis state that if positivism takes a view of educational reform that is largely technical, and interpretive research sees it as practical, then critical education science views it as participatory and collaborative. They go on:

“It takes a view of educational research as critical analysis directed at the transformation of educational practices, the educational understandings and educational values of those involved in the process, and the social and institutional structures which provide frameworks for their action.”

(Carr and Kemmis 1986, p.156)

Fay puts it more simply: “A critical social theory arises out of the problems of everyday life and is constructed with an eye towards solving them” (Fay 1977, p.109).

Comstock writes in a similar vein to Fay: “Critical social research begins from the life problems of definite and particular social agents who may be individuals, groups or classes that are oppressed by and alienated from social processes they maintain or create but do not control. Beginning from the practical problems of everyday

Page 116 of 258 existence it returns to that life with the aim of enlightening its subjects…” (Comstock 1982, pp.378-9)

As will be demonstrated in the main case study sections later, the more closely that the transformative actions chosen mapped onto the everyday lives of the

participants, the more impact they had and the greater the traction of the change.

In Carr and Kemmis’s opinion, it is important that researchers do not stand outside the situations that they aim to transform, or act as critics, although they

acknowledge this as an important and helpful role. They argue that participants must

“collaborate in the organization of their own enlightenment, the decision-making by which they will transform their situations and continuing critical analysis…” This forms a cycle (shown diagrammatically below), very similar in essence to Schön’s cycles of Knowing in Action, Reflection in Action , Reflection on Action and

Reflection on Reflection.

Figure 3: The 'moments' of action research

What then were the activities that took place to ensure that participants in the main situation being researched collaborated in enlightenment, decision-making and analysis? The diagram below gives examples of how this was achieved (much greater detail on each activity will be contained in the main case study section).

Page 117 of 258 Action

Research

‘moment’

Activity Nature of activity

Cycle 1

Plan 1  Qualitative user research aimed at uncovering audience needs and wants

 Gather trainer and BBC Academy requirements

 Enlightenment/discourse

Act 1  Iterative user-centred design process

 Rapid prototyping using agile techniques

 decision-making/practice

Observe 1  Monitor progress with audience and trainers and make minor adaptations

 Analysis/practice (reflection in action)

Reflect 1  Interviews with users, trainers, sponsors

Act 2  Iterative user-centred design process

 Integration of product into everyday activities

 decision-making/practice

Observe 2  Monitor progress with audience and trainers and make minor adaptations

 Analysis/practice (reflection in action)

Reflect 2  Interviews with users, trainers, sponsors

 Analysis/discourse (reflection on action)

So it can be seen that the action research cycles were both embedded in the everyday practice of the participants, and discursive – ensuring that participants were involved in each of enlightenment, decision-making and analysis – as would be

Page 118 of 258 required to meet Habermas’s notion of a critical social science, or Carr and

Kemmis’s critical educational science.

Requirement How critical social science meets the requirement

Sees ‘truth’ as historically and socially embedded, not distorted ideas and those that are not

Critically examine the a priori assumptions of those involved in the research and cases at all stages of the project aspects of the social order over which participants have no control and which prevent change

Initial aims of the project (and cases) were aimed

Page 119 of 258 Recognise that

educational theory is practical

Helps practitioners inform themselves about the actions they need to take to overcome their problems and eliminate their frustrations

Research (and cases) are practical and real, affecting the BBC’s ways of working both internally and with its audiences

Following on from the main action research case, the study has then looked at two other areas in the BBC to see if their learning confirms the findings of the main approach and what else can be learned – particularly with regard to working outside the BBC.