CLASIFICACIÓN RESIDUOS

Background. Modernization is understood as an improvement process in relation to society’s mechanisms for economic, political, cultural and social development. Typically, a nation embarks on modernization when it is confronted with extraordinary circumstances, when lagging behind more advanced nations becomes palpable and unbearable. Military defeats and emerging geopolitical threats are often seen as an

1These are seen as realistic goals. In more detail, the national strategy includes the following means to achieve the national goal:

- promotion of private enterprise and competition;

- effi cient social and industrial policies;

- harmonious interaction between business, government and public;

- strong (but not too strong) government;

- better quantity of public institutions (protection of ownership rights, independence and integrity of justice, lower corruption level, strong rule of the law, better quality of government);

- ensuring high level of human resource capital;

- modernizing the nation’s production forces;

- building and developing an innovative economy.

2Formally, a corporate strategy is the algebraic total of realized product strategies, which taken together creates a synergistic eff ect. In real life, this means implementation of development strategies within 13 industries and a range of social institutions.

3Formally, a product strategy is the algebraic total of realized functional strategies, together creating a synergistic eff ect.

4The term ‘Concept Object’ in the text of the HR Concept Paper is synonymous with the term ‘Control Object’.

5The RF Federal Act ‘On Education’ No. №3266-1 of July 10, 1992 understands education as a purposeful process to rear and educate the individual in the interests of the individual, society, and government, confi rmed through educational levels (qualifi cations) offi cially established and awarded by the government. The Russian system of education has established education levels of six types: basic general education, secondary (comprehensive) general education, primary education, secondary education, higher education, and post-graduate education.

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indicator that it is time for modernization, as was the case in Russia following her loss Crimean War of 1853-1856, or after military failures and economic stress during World War I. According to historians, Russia has made over 200 attempts to launch concerted campaigns that can be regarded as modernization programs.

Among the best prepared - but not always successfully implemented- there were numerous reforms in the Russia of 1860-1880s. Russia’s economic backwardness at the time was the primary impulse to change, and to fi nd the human resources and other means to implement the reforms.

That was also a time to consider the causes of failed reforms and to propose action to eliminate those problems. A low level of competence and a dearth of qualifi ed managerial, engineering and line staff have been cited as main causes for those unsuccessful reforms . At that time many articles and books were pub-lished, off ering explanations, individual recommendations, and even comprehensive programs to secure human resources for both ongoing and planned reforms in Russia. Here are some of the most thought-pro-voking (and still relevant) quotations from materials and publications from Russia of the 19th century.

For example, Russian revolutionary democrat N.A. Serno-Solovyevich described the ‘adverse conditions’

(of an intellectual, economic, natural and political nature) in which Russian industries found themselves.

He proposed a series of measures to eliminate such ‘conditions’⁶. As part of his plan, he proposed educa-tional measures: ‘Training for the people must be mainly practically and technically focused. We have very few workers: specialists, equipment operators, and technicians. Factories and machines that are com-missioned in Russia without foreign aid are few and far between. Yet our people by their nature are highly gifted in this respect. But talent alone is insuffi cient. They need positive awareness. And thus, to institute various real trade schools is among the most signifi cant issues for the Russian industry. They need good teachers. However, it is doubtful that they are enough at this time. Teachers must be trained, and it is only abroad that they can be trained. Training outside of Russia must pursue two objectives. The fi rst objective is academic: to train teachers. The second objecti is pragmatic: to improve various sectors of our industries.

Another measure that would achieve the same goal is to concentrate all special institutions, now subor-dinate to diff erent departments, under the Ministry of Public Education, and transform them into insti-tutions similar to a polytechnic school, but ensure that they remain open to the public.’

Another Russian, А.P. Schapov,⁷ proposed a broad-ranging plan for industrial and managerial popular education and projects for natural-science and economic associations. Their main goal was to ‘dissem-inate knowledge among the people.’ He maintained that it was necessary to begin public education ‘from establishing schools for natural sciences, economics, for industrial and engineering education’. Along with grammar schools that give general education, ‘we need secondary engineering and industrial schools...

They would prepare engineers, machine operators, agronomists, stock-breeders, shop fl oor foremen and managers.’ His system includes post-secondary vocational training: ‘along with higher general-education schools – universities and academies – we also greatly need special post-secondary institutions to teach economics, industry and technologies... Such post-secondary vocational institutions, as well as their de-partments, can be as varied as there are diff erent parts of the natural economy. Or the variety of schools may refl ect the many diff erent key areas in which there is a need for labor. For instance, we may need academies specializing in agronomy, cattle-farming, engineering or industrial manufacturing, mechanical science, forestry, seafaring, mining, architecture, or, among others, zoological business, mining industry, and others’

The most systematic and comprehensive project supporting reform ideas was the ‘Project for a General Plan for Industrial Education in Russia,’ written in 1886 by I.A. Vishnegradskiy, a renowned scientist and

profes-6“О мерах к умножению народного богатства и улучшению материальных условий народного труда в России» (‘Ways to Augment Public Wealth and Improve Material Conditions of Public Works in Russia “ (1858)

7In his ‘Realism as Applied to Public Economy’ («Реализм в применении к народной экономии») St-P, 1866.

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sor of the St. Petersburg Institute of Technology.⁸ From the beginning, the text of the ‘Project’ articulates what is necessary for developing this plan. First, the plan should be properly harmonized with the needs of the industries. ‘Industrial education must train only those who are truly capable for industrial employment.

Students must be equipped with the necessary knowledge and skills so that without any signifi cant diffi cul-ties and following not too lengthy a course of practical study prior to graduation, they can become useful agents in their respective area and in the corresponding level of an industrial profession.’ The plan must be unique in each of its parts, according to the fi ve hierarchical levels of the structure of managerial and production-related human resources that are described below. As a plan for special education, it must be coordinated with the ‘system of corresponding grades in general education,’ to continue and complete the respective general training. The plan must train the specialist only for the practical activity of a specifi c level.

And it should not aim at each of the fi ve steps to prepare the student for a ‘school that trains specialists of a higher grade. Practice shows that schools that try to achieve both such targets will deliver neither.’ And fi -nally, an ‘industrial education plan must possibly include or at least not exclude the existing fairly numerous technical and trade schools.’ And the plan should work to correct their apparent fl aws.

The plan follows to disclose fi ve categories (‘degrees’) of managerial and industrial staff that are required for the industry and for which the plan was prepared.

These are engineers with experience, ‘training in science and technology, able to improve production 1.

based on recent domestic and international achievements, prepared to challenge successfully diff er-ent industrial institutions, both in terms of better manufacturing quality, and in terms of cutting the related production costs’. I. Vishnegradskiy believed that in the absence of such engineers, ‘the nation will be doomed either to stagnation and gradual degradation of its industries or to permanent de-pendence on foreigners.’

These are ‘industrial managers competent in business. They are aware of the technical intricacies 2.

and are able to independently handle the commercial aspects of an industrial enterprise, even in the broadest possible scope. They are knowledgeable enough in technologies’ to discuss technical im-provements with engineers.

These are technicians, the engineer’s right-hand men, who must possess information needed both for 3.

‘substantial and correct maintenance of production’ and project design and research.

These are foremen, who ‘are very aware of the technological aspects of manufacturing and are able to 4.

manage the workforce. They are suffi ciently informed to see that their workshops achieve the best in-dustrial results.’

These are workers, who are guided by their foreman to accomplish tasks trusted to them ‘with good 5.

precision and accuracy.’ For workers, it is of utmost importance to ‘ensure overall development, to be moral, and to have a conscientious attitude to work...’

The Project elaborates on the requirements for each human resources category. It evaluates the organiza-tion of training, the detailed contents of training courses, curricula and programs, educaorganiza-tion forms and timetable, gives estimated costs of training for each human resource group, provides a list of requisite new institutes, vocational and trade schools, training workshops, and their distribution over Russia. As he de-scribes his new proposals, the author of the Project keeps comparing them to the situation then in relation to the question under consideration. Also, he tries to identify best ways for ‘seamless’ transition from the obsolete pattern to a new one.

Broadly speaking, the role of training and of education as a spiritual component of Russia's workforce was traditionally the focus of attention of Russian statesmen and scientists during the 19^th century. Their

inter-8Russian Minister of Finance from 1888 to 1892.

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est in the problems of education was not just idle. It was consistent with the main direction in which the national system as a whole was evolving. It included society’s economic, social, cultural and political com-ponents. To quote Dmitry Pikhno, Professor of Kiev University, ‘The people’s level of education is one of its greatest forces. In addition to general and occupational knowledge given by schools, sciences and literature, popular education or culture matters greatly. Together they create a vibrant cultural life’⁹. His colleague from Moscow University, Prof. Ivan Yanzhul, expanded the notion of man’s spiritual nature as a special factor in economic growth. In his ‘Value of Education for Success of Industries and Trade’ (1899), building on ideas from his precursors, I. Vishnegradskiy among them, he wrote: ‘Literacy alone is far from enough to ensure successful growth and promote welfare in the nation. Using primary education as the basis, we need to ensure that specialized knowledge for the people, dissemination of technical learning and other types of occupational training are made accessible. Without this knowledge no industry can progress in the nation, not even folk crafts’. But unlike his predecessors, I. Yanzhul promoted an original factor to support the devel-opment of the nation’s workforce, the manufacturer’s integrity. This is very signifi cance in today’s global crisis.

He wrote, ‘Not only is a manufacturer’s physical nature relevant, but also his spiritual nature. We can see that the scope and the quality of production depend to a great degree on the education and training of the producer. This seemingly forgotten factor of man’s spiritual nature in turn is approached in two ways. First, it is seen in terms of reason in the narrow sense of the word, as developed by education or enlightenment.

And the second aspect is morality, also known to be the man’s spiritual integrity’¹⁰. According to him, the most signifi cant of spiritual qualities is honesty, which in civilized nations is ensured by the most exacting legislation and rigorous enforcement. This thus emphasizes the value of institutional elements for the socio-economic development of the nation.

‘No matter how many schools we build in Russia, as long as the value of honesty is lacking, we cannot ex-pect successful progress in creating wealth among the people.’¹¹ ‘And people who are honest are thereby strong not only in their morality, but in their economic strength’¹². As Yanzhul maintained, Russia at the end of the 19th century saw an acute need for profound socio-economic and broad cultural reform to educate new morally strong generations in both of the ways he mentioned: ‘…it is only by exerting infl uence on both educational development and moral improvement and especially honesty that we can grow and estab-lish our true culture on a foundation which can become solid and durable’¹³

Analysis of the current situation

The reason we pay so much attention to the background of the issue and Russia’s experience in pre-paring for and seeing through reforms is merely because we adhere to the following tried and trusted principle in any fi eld of action: ‘Anything that is new is a fresh arrangement of the old’. Any new recom-mendations on human resource support for modernization of the present-day Russia will be sound and expressed not so much through fundamentally new statements about the human resources system for contemplated transformation, rather it will be conditioned by specifi c new goals and objectives, by the nation’s new internal resources (including accumulated experiences), new opportunities of the milieu and challenges.

The processes that have been occurring in Russia in the last decade recall the situation in Russia of the second half of the 19 Century. The consequences and aftereff ects of internal and external processes have

9Русские экономисты (XIX - начало XX века) (Russian economists (19thto early 20 century)). М.: RAS Institute of Economics, 1998. p. 148

10Янжул И.И. Экономическое значение честности: забытый фактор производства. Избранные труды. (I.I. Yanzhul Economic Value of Honesty:

Forgotten Factor in Production. Selected Works) М.: Nauka, 2005, p .402

11Ibid. p. 406-407

12Ibid. p. 418

13Ibid. p. 420

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fi nally confronted the modern Russia’s economy with long-term systemic challenges which now require a systemic response. The following challenges are the most momentous and acute¹⁴:

Intense global competition, aff ecting not only traditional markets of commodities, capital, technologies and labor, but also national management systems, support for innovation, and the development of hu-man potential (emphasis by author – M.V.)

A new expected surge of technological changes to boost the role of innovation in socio-economic devel-opment, which now dampen many traditional factors for growth.

The growing role of human capital as the main factor for economic growth .

The exhausted potential of the pattern of exporting raw materials as a driver of Russia’s growth.

Limits to growth of Russia’s economy caused, among other things, by a shortage of skilled engineers and workers.

A number of social and institutional problems that remain unresolved.

These challenges required a conceptual response from the nation’s leadership, government agencies and private business, resulting in the development of a series of programmatic documents. Key among them are the ‘Russia-2020’ concept and provisions stated by the President, including at the St. Petersburg Inter-national Economic Forum (June 2010), as well as in the materials of the Presidential Committee for Mod-ernization and Technological Development of Russian Economy.

As we have stated our assumptions above, let us restate the vision, strategic direction of the nation's devel-opment and national strategy described in the ‘Russia-2020’ framework:

Vision. In the 2015 – 2020 period, Russia must rise to the status of a leading world power of the 21st Cen-tury, take a front-line position in global economic competition, join the top fi ve nations in GDP (parity of purchasing capacity), and become the most investment-attractive economy in the world.

Our strategic goals include attaining a level of economic and social development that commensurate with the above status, reliable national security and the assurance of citizens’ constitutional rights. This calls for achievement of high standards in personal security, ready access to the service of education and health care of the required quality, the necessary level of housing availability, access to the benefi ts of cul-ture, and assurance of environmental safety¹⁵.

As a vehicle to attain the ambitious vision and strategic goals, the national strategy was developed and adopted for implementation in 2008: ‘Modernization and sustained dynamic growth and development of innovative economy in Russia’. In terms of strategic management, the issue in question is the so-called

‘combination corporate strategy’ which is a balanced blend of components of strategies for concentrat-ed growth, integratconcentrat-ed growth, diversifi concentrat-ed growth, and even a cutback strategy ¹⁶.

‘Modernization and the development of innovation in Russiam’ a national corporate strategy, can and must be realized through development of all industries of the national economy (as national product strategies), as a balanced symbiosis of modernization in the traditional sectors of the Russian economy (oil and gas, raw materials, agriculture, transportation, etc.) have accelerated the development of high-tech industries and innovative products.

The question arises about how to ensure realization of the goals to shape, stabilize and develop product strategies, to achieve the national strategic goals for the 2020s and 2030s. While fi nancing, the legal envi-ronment, the scientifi c knowledge base, natural resources, plants and equipment, and other elements are important in achieving these goals, human capital is key both at the national level and at the level of

indi-14According to ‘Russia-2020’ strategy

15For example, as stated in the ‘Russia-2020’ strategy, higher and high-school vocational education is expected to cover 60 - 70 percent of citizens by 2020 (compared to 50 percent in 2007).

16If necessary, these items can be further detailed and illustrated with examples.

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vidual businesses. This is the resource that can take on a special role in Russia’s modernization, stabilization and the development of an innovative economy in Russia.

The planned workforce reorganization, modernization and development of innovation in Russia depend more on the quality of their use rather than on mere availability and quantity of material, fi nancial, natural and other resources. Human capital is the universal resource thanks to which Russia will be able to compe-tently create and use such resources, ultimately rising to the position of a global intellectual leader capable not only of reproducing ideas in science and technology but to generate them domestically. And this re-source will ensure high living standards and for all citizens, and it will allow for the exporting of high-end products and will attract both people and capital.

Without underestimating the importance of all other means used to implement the national strategy, we need to identify the ever-growing role of the subjective factor that manifests in a number of ways. First, it is the proactive and creative approach practiced by industrial leaders and rank-and-fi le government offi cers, managers, specialists and employees of private manufacturers. Second, it is the ability and resolve of gov-ernment offi cials and business people to adopt and follow the new course for implementation of an inno-vative method of industrial development. Third, it is the readiness and commitment to innovation among executives and specialists at all levels. And fi nally, it is creative action by the people working to build and

Without underestimating the importance of all other means used to implement the national strategy, we need to identify the ever-growing role of the subjective factor that manifests in a number of ways. First, it is the proactive and creative approach practiced by industrial leaders and rank-and-fi le government offi cers, managers, specialists and employees of private manufacturers. Second, it is the ability and resolve of gov-ernment offi cials and business people to adopt and follow the new course for implementation of an inno-vative method of industrial development. Third, it is the readiness and commitment to innovation among executives and specialists at all levels. And fi nally, it is creative action by the people working to build and