CLIENTELISMO ELECTORAL: BENEFICIOS SELECTIVOS A CAMBIO DE VOTOS

Social network theory forms part of the bigger network theory perspective. For the purpose of this study the social network theory is the most relevant theory.

Borgatti et al. (2009:894) write that the oldest critique against the social network theory is a lack of theory in the field. But they reject this critique by stating that there is so much theory available that it can be difficult to organise and simplify.

For this reason, I have chosen to use the demarcation and explanation set out by Katz et al. (2004:13). They state that within the network perspective there are five different

“schools of thought” that attempt to explain networking:

 Theories of self-interest;

 Theories of social exchange or dependency;

 Theories of mutual or collective interest;

 Cognitive theories;

 Theories of homophily.

Out of these five different schools of thought (within the social networking theory), only four are applicable to this study; the cognitive theories are not applicable as they are more relevant for small group studies.

I will discuss these theories and their relevance to this study in the next section.

3.2.2.1 Theories of self-interest

In this paradigm, scholars assume that people form ties with others for their own benefit.

Katz et al. (2004:313) state the roots of this school are founded in the work of James

28 Coleman, in 1988, who illustrated that actors in a group operate in the group out of self-interest. The actors see their linking in a network as an investment to their social capital from which they can benefit later on.

Muijs, West and Ainscow (2010:9) refer to this as the theory of social capital. Lin (1999:30) defines social capital simply as “investment in social relations with expected returns”. It can be concluded that this theory assumes actors network as individuals with other individuals to benefit their own interest.

For the purposes of this study, this particular theory applies as members of the NPC join the NPC mostly out of self-interest. Members see their membership and networking as an investment in their careers. They expect to benefit from the networking with other

members, for example, a journalist networks with an editor from another media house in the hope to get a foot in the door for possible job opportunities.

3.2.2.2 Theories of social exchange or dependency

This school of thought has its roots in the work of George Homans in 1950. According to him, people network in order to trade their valuable resources. The sustainability of the relationship is dependent on what both parties can gain from the relationship (Katz et al., 2004:314).

Katz et al. further explain that in 1972 Richard Emerson broadened this perspective.

According to Emerson, every actor in a network can exchange resources because they also form part of another network. For example, a member of the NPC could also be a member of Safrea or another journalism organisation. Katz et al. (2004:314) argue that according to the social exchange theory, actors network so that they can become less dependent on other actors but make more people dependent on them. This theory is also referred to as the network exchange theory.

This theory applies to this study for the reason that the associate members (public relation officers) of the NPC join to expand their media contact database. They want to network to distribute stories and make journalists dependent on their relationship. One such example would be a government spokesperson that joins the NPC to expand his media contacts database, but also makes them dependable on him for stories.

29 3.2.2.3 Theories of mutual or collective interest

Theories of mutual interest or collective action form a third group in the network approach.

Marwell and Oliver (1993:2) explain that the foundation for this perspective is that the actors have a common interest and believe that when working together they can achieve more.

Katz et al. (2014:314) point out that the theory best developed in this perspective is the public goods theory. According to them, the public goods theory was developed by

Samuelson in 1954 to explain collective ownership of goods versus private ownership. In recent years it was further developed to explain the shared possession of intellectual property. According to Katz et al. (2014:315), the public goods theory attempts to explain why actors form a group to create and maintain public goods in order for everyone in the group to benefit. This collective action theory assumes the opposite of the self-interest theories, as actors network to “mobilize for collective action in their environment”.

Although this theory assumes the opposite of the self-interest theory, it is applicable to this study as well. One of the reasons for the founding of the PPC was to have a platform to debate and fight for media freedom in South Africa. This has continued to be an important role of the PPC and, later, NPC through the years.

3.2.2.4 Cognitive theories

According to Katz et al. (2004:315), cognitive theories also contribute to the network perspective.

Bandura (2001:266) states that the social cognitive theory assumes that although people are shaped by their environment or “inner forces”, they are also “self-organizing, proactive, self-reflecting, and self-regulating” beings. It assumes that actors produce social systems as much as they are products of those social systems.

Katz et al. (2004:315) name specifically the theory of cognitive consistency and the theory of transactive memory systems as contributors to this family of theories. Both theories focus on the perceptions of the actors in a group but differ in the reason why the actors start a network and sustain network ties.

As already stated, this theory does not relate to this study, as it is more applicable to small group studies.

30 3.2.2.5 Theories of homophily

This perspective assumes that people network with people with whom they can associate.

Katz et al. (2004:317) assert that these similarities can be similarities in terms of “age, gender, education, prestige, social class, tenure and occupation”. Katz et al. further state that, currently, people would rather group together in terms of professional identity than categories such as gender or age.

This theory is applicable to this study as members join the NPC to network with people with similar interests, namely journalism and media.

3.2.2.6 Summary

In this section, the different schools of thought within the social network theory were presented. Four of the five schools of thought are relevant to this study of the NPC.

In the next section I will discuss the social responsibility theory and its relevance to this study.